

Copyright N® 


COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT 
















I! 

I 

!! 


Automobile Timing 
Self - Taught 


An Exhaustive Treatise on the Operation, 
Management and Care of Motor Cars. 

-BY- 

'UHOMAS H. %USSELL, A. M., M. E. 

Former Editor of “Modern Machinery”; Author of “The 
American Cyclopedia of the Automobile”; Author of 
“History of the Automobile,” “Automobile Motors and 
Mechanism,” “Ignition, Timing and Valve Setting," 

“Motor Boats: Construction and Operation,” etc., etc. 




1914 

CHARLES C. THOMPSON CQ. 
CHICAGO. U. S. A. 


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i 





Copyright 1914 

CHARLES C. THOMPSON CO. 




SEP -8 1914 

By 

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AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 
Copyright, MCMIX 
CHARLES C. THOMPSON CO. 
(Not Inc.) 


Copyright, MCMXII 


By CHARLES C. THOMPSON CO. 


© Cl. A 3 7 !t 3 it !* 

JOO/ 



Preface 


— 

J 

As comfort and safety in automobiling depend to a very 
large extent upon the skill of the driver, it should be the aim 
of everyone who undertakes to drive a car to acquire a knowl¬ 
edge of the approved methods of driving. 

The object of this book is to present such information in 
a convenient, practical manner, so as to make it compara¬ 
tively easy for any motorist to acquire skill in the manage¬ 
ment and care of his machine. Study and practice combined 
will surely develop the expertness which is needed nowadays 
at the wheel, being demanded alike by the interests of the 
automobilist and of the non-motoring public. The careless or 
ignorant driver is a menace, not only to the safety of the 
public, but also to that of his passengers. The daily experi¬ 
ence of every motorist demonstrates the need for carefulness 
in driving and there is no longer any excuse for ignorance. 

The methods of driving prescribed in this work are those 
that have been found best in actual experience on the road. 
From these pages the motorist can learn how to start, drive 
and manage his car under all conceivable circumstances. The 
best methods of caring for the car when not in use are also 
plainly shown, as well as the manner in which a car should 
be laid up when necessary. 

Several chapters are devoted to the causes and remedies 
for various difficulties that may be met with in starting the 
engine, also those due to loss of power. Causes of involuntary 
stops are likewise indicated and the proper remedies pre- 


3 



scribed. The properties and economical use of gasolene are 
discussed and many valuable hints and tips for the gasolene 
consumer are given. Then the operating mechanism of a 
modern car is described and the various forms of change speed 
gear are made clear by non-technical text and plain illustra¬ 
tions. There is also an interesting chapter on the choice of a 
car, intended for the benefit of those who contemplate enter¬ 
ing the ever-growing ranks of the automobile fraternity. 

Thus it will be seen that this work is not only a complete 
textbook for self-tuition in the art of automobile driving, but 
also a handy reference book in cases of trouble due to difficulty 
in starting, involuntary stops, loss of power, etc., and a store¬ 
house of practical information on the care and maintenance of 
the motor car. T. H. R. 


\ 


v 

\ 


l 




Contents 


Page 

1. AUTOMOBILE DRIVING—General Instructions 7 

Starting the Engine—Advancing the Spark— 
How to Change Speeds—Use of the Clutch 
—The Control Levers—Principles of Gear 
Changing—The Engine Speed as a Factor— 
How to Get the Best Work Out of a Motor— 
Skidding or Sideslip. 

2. THE ART OF DRIVING—How to Become a Safe 


and Expert Driver. 55 

3. SELF-TUITION IN DRIVING—Continued. 61 


The Initial Trip—Charging Tanks—Starting 
the Engine—'Manipulating the Control—Cor¬ 
rect Mixture—Changing Gear—On the Top 
Speed—Withdrawing the Clutch—Coasting 
Slopes—Picking up the Drive—Driving on 
the Reverse—Entering and Leaving the 
Garage—After the Drive—Road Risks, etc. 

4. ANOTHER LESSON IN DRIVING. 72 

Learning the Steering and Control—Pre¬ 
liminary Attentions to Car—Starting—Chang¬ 
ing Speed—Coasting, Braking and Reversing 
—Sources of Sideslip—To Avoid Skidding— 
Non-slip Devices—Choice of Track—Speed 
Limits—Conduct in Emergencies—Driving 
Through City Traffic—Meeting Horses, Cattle 
and Cyclists. 

5. DIFFICULTY IN STARTING—S ymptoms, 

Causes and Remedies. 85 

6. INVOLUNTARY STOPS—Causes and Remedies. 90 







7. LOSS OF POWER—Causes and Remedies. 101 

8. CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF MOTOR 

CARS . HO 


Private Housing—The Garage—Light and 
Warmth—Cleaning—Care of the Hands— 
Lubricating—Adj listing—Adj ustable Bear¬ 
ings—Brake Treatment—Charging Batteries 
—Recharging from a Strange Supply. 


9. CARE OF A CAR ON A TOUR. 131 

10. LAYING UP A CAR. 146 


Cleaning the Engine—The Transmission 
Gear—Connections and Chains—The Clutch 
—Protection of Exposed Metallic Parts— 
The Lubricators—Tire Treatment—Laying 


Up for the Winter. 

11. GASOLENE—Its Properties and Economical Use. 155 

12. GASOLENE HINTS AND TIPS. 159 

13. OPERATING MECHANISM OF A MODERN 

CAR. 165 

14. CHOICE OF A CAR, ETC. 167 

15. CHANGE SPEED GEAR—Various Forms. 184 


Need of a Reducing Gear—Transmission and 
Variable Gearing—Selective Sliding Gears. 

16. “DON’TS” FOR MOTOR CAR DRIVERS AND 


TIRE OWNERS . 216 

17. THE LAW OF THE ROAD. 223 

18. RACE DRIVING AS A BUSINESS. 239 

19. NEGLIGENCE IN DRIVING. 246 


20. SELF-STARTING AND LIGHTING SYSTEMS. 252 














AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


7 


PART I. 

AUTOMOBILE DRIVING. 

The best way to learn to drive a car is a question that must 
be decided by individual circumstances. It is generally 
agreed, however, though not regarded as essential, that the 
novice should begin with a small light car, if convenient, and 
acquire confidence in the use of such a machine before under¬ 
taking the management of the heavier, costlier and more com¬ 
plex cars. This does not necessarily imply that the man who 
has never driven an automobile must needs first buy a light 
car before indulging the desire of his heart to own a powerful, 
commodious touring machine. Facilities for learning to drive 
on a small car abound in our cities and towns nowadays, and 
automobile agents are usually ready to put prospective cus¬ 
tomers in the way of receiving preliminary instruction on 
light machines at expert hands. For his own comfort and 
safety’s sake, as well as for considerations of public safety, no 
man should attempt to drive a car of any size until he has 
informed himself pretty fully on its details of construction and 
methods of control. 

It should be clearly understood that some of the general 
instructions under this head of “Driving,” as well as many of 
the hints and “tips” which follow, have been written to apply 
especially to cars of moderate power, such as novices are 
usually recommended to learn upon. It must be remem¬ 
bered also that thousands of cars made in earlier years of the 
automobile industry are still in daily use and are constantly 
changing ownership, so that the mechanism, driving and 
control of such cars properly receive due consideration in 
these pages. 

At the same time the vast majority of the instructions ap- 


8 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


ply to the driving of any car irrespective of size, though each 
individual make has its peculiarities which cannot be covered 
under a general heading. 

“Drive slowly until fully competent'’ is a general instruc¬ 
tion to beginners which is all-important and should never be 
neglected. 

Nerve, judgment, experience, and consideration for the pub¬ 
lic are all necessary for good driving. The mere steering of 
the car on a dry road where there is no traffic is as simple as 
child’s play, but it is when difficulties arise suddenly that the 
qualities above enumerated become necessary. 

Before Starting. 

Before starting a car for the day, first examine the gasolene, 
lubricating oil and water tanks, and grease cups to make sure 
they are fully charged. See that the engine and other vital 
parts are lubricated properly. Make a cursory examination 
of the wires, batteries, etc., to determine if all the connections 
are tight. Make sure, too, that the gear lever is in the neutral 
notch, and that the hand-brake is on hard. Make a general 
inspection of the car so far as time permits. Then turn on the 
gasolene, switch on the current, and retard the sparking so 
as to prevent the risk of back fire. It sometimes happens 
that the engine will not start freely with the ignition retarded 
to the fullest. In such a case the lever should be advanced 
very slightly until the best position has been found by ex¬ 
periment, bearing in mind always that the further it is ad¬ 
vanced the greater will be the risk of a back fire. 

The carburation lever, when such is fitted, is the nnxt that 
requires attention. Seeing that the piston can only be made 
to travel at a comparatively slow rate when operated by the 
starting handle, it is necessary to put the carburation lever 
in such a position that nearly the entire volume of air passes 
round the spraying nipple. Most carbureters nowadays are 
automatic, so that the correct proportion of air and gas are 
approximately assured at every revolution. It may, however, 
be necessary to slightly alter the adjustment of the air supply. 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


9 


The throttle lever should then be placed in the position 
which has been found by experiment to be the best one for 
starting purposes. 

Starting the Engine. 

The next operation is to start the engine. First operate the 
small plunger fitted over the float chamber of the carbureter 
for the purpose of insuring an adequate supply of gasolene 
vapor, which otherwise might not be sufficient, owing to the 
impossibility of operating the engine at a fast speed by hand, 
and the consequent feeble suction. It is best, however, not to 
“flood” the carbureter in the ordinary acceptance of the term, 
for if there is an over supply of gasolene the mixture may 
prove so rich that the engine will not start. It is only neces¬ 
sary to get the mixture rich enough to be easily ignited. Ex¬ 
perience will show to what extent the carbureter need be 
“tickled” to insure the best starting results. 

Next, with the handle at the lowest point, grasp it in the 
right hand with the fingers pointing in the direction in which 
the handle revolves, and, with the left hand, grip the adjacent 
dumb-iron so as to give a good purchase. Then standing well 
clear of the handle give a short, sharp pull upward, more in 
the nature of a jerk than an ordinary pull, and drop the 
handle the moment it gets to the highest point. 

Should the engine not start after several trials “tickle” the 
carbureter again and try once more. If the engine still proves 
refractory, squirt a little kerosene or gasolene—the latter is 
the most efficacious— through the compression cocks. If this 
fails, examine the ignition system, especially the plugs. Note 
that the handle should always be pulled upward, never pushed 
downward, and it is advisable to place the thumb on the same 
side of the handle as to the fingers, in case of a back fire. Some 
motorists adopt the practice of winding the handle until the 
engine starts. It is a dangerous practice however, for, should 
a back fire occur, a sprained or broken wrist may result. 

Most two, four and six cylinder, as well as some of the later 
types of one-cylinder cars are provided with a compression 
release arrangement to facilitate starting. This is actuated 


10 


A UTOMOBILE DRIVING 


by a rod projecting through the frame under the bonnet in 
front of the car. It is held in position by a stop while the 
handle is being turned. When the motor starts, return the 
rod to its normal position. 

Multi-cylinder engines, while still hot, can, as a rule, be 
started by switching on the current, and also when cold, 
but in this case the driver should give the starting handle a 
turn or two first, with the ignition switched off, so as to draw 
in a charge. In the case of one or two cylinder engines it is 
also advisable to draw in a charge before the ignition is 
switched on, and the operator should make sure that the pis¬ 
ton is on the compression stroke before finally attempting to 
get the engine in motion. 

Advancing the Spark. 

Having started the engine the ignition should be very 
slightly advanced to prevent overheating At the same time 
the throttle lever should be operated until the engine is run¬ 
ning as slowly as possible. The driver should then take his 
seat in the car, depress the clutch pedal, take the hand brake 
out of operation, move the gear lever into the low speed notch, 
open the throttle to a medium position, and let the clutch in 
as smoothly and gradually as possible. The practice of start¬ 
ing on any gear but the low one, except on a down grade, is 
not to be recommended, as it strains the engine and entire 
transmission system. 

How to Change Speeds. 

It is absolutely essential that the beginner should care¬ 
fully cultivate the art of changing his gears correctly if he 
desires to become an expert driver and to drive economically. 
The sliding type of change speed gear which is now almost 
universal is, from a mechanical point of view, a somewhat 
brutal system, because, if the driver is not skilful and careful, 
he is bound to bring the edges of the gear wheels on the 
primary and secondary shaft into fierce contact while they 
are revolving at different speeds. This will cause great wear 
and may even chip off portions of the teeth. The act of chang- 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


11 


ing properly is simply a knack, requiring some experience and 
a quick, delicate and sympathetic touch. The beginner should, 
if possible, learn this on a small car. 

Before making his initial attempt he should endeavor to 
grasp the difficulties of the situation The oroblem is as fol¬ 
lows : There are two trains of gear wheels (see Change 
Speed Gear) revolving at varying speeds according to the 
ratio between the two gear wheels which happen to be in 
mesh. The change is effected by taking these gear wheels 
out of mesh, and causing two other gear wheels to mesh 
whose ratios to each other are not the same as the previous 
pair, and which consequently are revolving at different speeds 
at the moment immediately preceding the change. To effect 
a clean change, therefore, it is essential that at the moment 
when the two gear wheels are moved into contact they are 
revolving at approximately their respective “in-mesh” speeds. 
Otherwise the faces of the teeth will grind against each other. 

Different makes of cars generally vary slightly as regards 
the movements necessary for perfect changing, and conse¬ 
quently we shall describe the best methods for certain types 
of cars well known in the United States and Europe. This 
will prove sufficient guide as to general principles. Taking 
the Peugeot car as a typical example, we will describe the best 
methods for manipulating the gears. Having started the en¬ 
gine, its speed should be reduced to a minimum prior to de¬ 
clutching, so as to insure that the clutch shaft ceases to re¬ 
volve. The gear lever should then be moved gently into the 
low speed notch. If there is any difficulty in getting the gear 
teeth to engage without grating, the clutch should be let into 
operation for a moment, and another attempt made, or fail¬ 
ing that, the driver should get into the reverse and then im¬ 
mediately go right forward into the low speed. For the second 
speed the engine should be run at its normal speed, and the 
clutch taken out sharply and decisively. The change also 
should be made with decision, the vital point being that both 
movements should synchronize. At the same time the move¬ 
ment should not be violent. 


12 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


On the third and fourth speeds, the change should also be 
decisive, the gear lever being pushed rapidly forward at the 
moment of declutching. Any hesitation will cause the car 
to lose impetus, and consequently the engine will not take up 
its load well, while in many cases the teeth will grind. As 
regards the top speed, it is direct in the case of the cars man¬ 
ufactured by the Peugeot firm, and is obtained by means of 
dog clutches. If the action of changing is decisive there is 
very little risk of missing this gear, but if the operator does 
miss, the only plan is to go right back on to the third speed, 
let the clutch in for a moment, and then make another attempt 
at changing. When changing from a low to a higher speed, 
it is not well to let the clutch in instantaneously, especially 
on an up-grade, as the strain will then be considerable, and the 
speed taken off the engine. There should be just a suspicion 
of slip to enable the drive to be taken up smoothly. The 
driver should not change too soon to a higher gear on an 
ascent. He should wait until he is sure that the engine will 
take the higher gear without laboring. 

In changing down the method is somewhat different. The 
operator should be careful that the speed at which the car is 
traveling approximates to that to which he is about to de¬ 
scend, and consequently if he is changing on the level, for the 
sake of traffic or such like, he should slow down the car by 
means of the throttle or by taking the clutch out momentarily. 
In the latter case it facilitates changing to let the clutch into 
operation again for a fraction of a second before effecting the 
change. As regards the actual change, whether on the level 
or on an ascent, the method of declutching is different from 
that adopted when changing up. Instead of the clutch being 
taken out firmly, rapidly, and decisively, the foot action should 
be more in the nature of a tap, only just sufficient to relieve 
the pressure of the pinions on each other, so as to facilitate 
their coming out of mesh in response to the pressure of the 
gear lever, actuated at the same time. The change speed lever 
should not be operated quite so decisively, but at the same 
time without hesitation, the object aimed at being to bring 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


13 


the pinions into contact at the exact moment when the pri¬ 
mary gear shaft has slowed to such an extent that the smaller 
pinion, which is about to be brought into mesh, is revolving 
approximately at the same rate as the larger pinion on the 
secondary gear shaft. In getting from the fourth to the third, 
and the third to the second, it is very unusual to miss chang¬ 
ing, but in getting from the second to the first or lowest speed, 
the smallness of the pinion on the primary shaft, and the like¬ 
lihood of the car traveling too fast for the low speed, make 
a change more difficult. The operator should, therefore, wait 
until the pace has dropped, and if the gears grate should give 
two or three rapid taps to the clutch pedal, at the same time 
applying gentle pressure to the change-speed lever, when the 
gear will easily go home. The engine should not be raced just 
before the change is made, neither should it be throttled down 
but should be run at about its normal speed. Should, how¬ 
ever, the driver wish to pick up quickly on an ascent he will 
find it advantageous, just as the gears mesh, to race the engine, 
at the same time not slamming the clutch in, but letting it slip 
slightly for the first few yards. 

In the light Rover, a typical British machine, the gears, 
which consist of three forward and a reverse, have to be oper¬ 
ated in a somewhat different manner. In changing from the 
first to the second the action should be comparatively steady, 
and the clutch taken out sharply. In changing from the sec¬ 
ond to the high speed the action should be very rapid and 
sharp, both as regards the clutch and the gear lever. In 
changing down, the greatest difficulty is getting cleanly from 
the third to the second. It is essential that the speed of the 
car should have dropped sufficiently; in fact, a better change 
can be effected if the speed is allowed to drop below the pace 
of the second speed. The lever should be operated compara¬ 
tively slowly, the driver feeling his way, and operating the 
clutch pedal with a series of little taps should the pinions not 
slip into mesh smoothly. No attempt should be made to force 
the gear should the pinions grind, but the driver should con¬ 
tinue tapping the clutch pedal and pressing gently on the lever. 


14 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


In fact, after a touch or two to the clutch pedal to allow the 
gear wheels in engagement to come out of mesh easily the 
change can often be effected while the clutch is actually in 
operation. This applies to some other cars also, more espe¬ 
cially when a driver wants to change from a high speed to a 
lower one when running light on the level—in traffic, for ex¬ 
ample—or down hill. 

In the case of the English Rover it is not difficult to get into 
the low speed, and the operation is somewhat the same as al¬ 
ready described. 

In the Argyll car, manufactured in Glasgow, Scotland, there 
are three speeds forward and a reverse, and it is an easy car to 
effect a clean change with, due to the special system adopted. 
In the case of the second and third speeds the gear wheels 
are always in mesh, and the change is effected by dog 
clutches. The low speed is, however, operated by sliding pin¬ 
ions. The most important feature of the design, from a gear 
changing point of view, is that the operating gear is spring 
controlled. •■The driver, therefore, cannot force either the gear¬ 
wheel faces or the dog-clutch faces into contact with each 
other. All he can do is to bring them into position, so to 
speak, and the spring pressure slips them into engagement 
when the right moment arrives. 

In the type fitted to the lighter De Dion cars the pinions 
are always in mesh, and expanding clutches effect the change. 
In the Winton type, also, the wheels are in mesh, and the gear 
changing is effected by bringing friction cone clutches into 
operation, as described under Change Speed Gear. In both 
these types it is advisable to make the change gradually, so 
as to allow the clutch to slip slightly at first and thus take up 
the drive smoothly. 

In the epicyclic type, as fitted to the English Lanchester 
and the early Duryea, Oldsmobile, and other American cars, 
the gear wheels are also in mesh, and the application of band 
brakes, which must be gradually applied, effects the change. 

Generally speaking, changes “up” should be sharp and 
quick to prevent any loss of momentum in the car, while 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


15 


changes “down’ should be effected more slowly, just allowing 
the gears, under slight hand pressure, to slip in of their own 
accord when the engine speed has increased to the necessary 
extent. There should then be no noise. 

Use of the Clutch. 

The condition of the clutch is all important. If it is fierce 
it is impossible to take up the drive gradually, and great 
strain is caused to the engine, gear, transmission system and 
tires. The care of the clutch is an essential factor of 
good driving and is fully dealt with elsewhere under this 
heading. In starting, the clutch should be brought into opera¬ 
tion so gradually that the car moves off without the slightest 
jerk. In gear changing, the clutch action should be sympa¬ 
thetic and should synchronize with the gear-changing effort. 
There should be no undue hesitation in letting the clutch into 
operation again, but at the same time this should be effected 
so that there is no jerk in taking up the drive. In changing up. 
especially, this is important. If the change is very rapid 
when changing down, the clutch can as a rule be let right 
home, for the pace of the car will not have dropped below the 
speed represented by the gear on to which the driver has 
dropped. If, however, the driver is unskilful and changes 
slowly, or if the gears are badly designed or constructed and 
do not therefore change at once, it is essential that the clutch 
should be let slip slightly so as to take up the drive gradually, 
otherwise there will be an injurious jerk. On the other hand, if 
the clutch is slipped too much the car may continue to slow 
down—in extreme cases to such an extent that the engine will 
not be able to take the gear without laboring unduly—which 
may necessitate dropping on to a still lower gear. Also, if 
the clutch is withdrawn in traffic, so that the pace slows, it 
should be let in again very gradually. Or if the car is run¬ 
ning free downhill, and has attained a greater pace than 
corresponds with the speed of the particular gear which hap¬ 
pens to be in mesh, the same precaution should be observed. 

Clutch slipping, of course, causes a certain amount of wear 


16 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


on the clutch faces, and consequently should not be unduly 
resorted to, as when checking the pace in traffic or nursing 
the car over the crest of a hill in order to avoid the necessity 
of changing gear. Generally speaking, it is better to change 
under such circumstances. Properly constructed plate or disk 
clutches, working in oil, can be slipped to a greater extent 
without undue wear than cone or expanding clutches. In 
fact, in the case of some plate*clutches drivers report that they 
have found it possible by slipping the clutch to run at such a 
crawling pace on the high gear as would otherwise be im¬ 
possible without causing the engine to labor, and nevertheless, 
after a whole season’s use, the wear was hardly appreciable. 

The Control Levers. 

The power of the engine is affected by the control levers, 
and consequently excessive movement of the same, unless 
carrid out gradually, will vary the power of the engine so 
rapidly as to cause undue strain on engine, transmission sys¬ 
tem^ and tires, just as in the case of a fierce clutch let into en¬ 
gagement suddenly. In the case of some carbureters such 
sudden and excessive movement will absolutely upset the 
carburation, and consequently may affect the power tempo¬ 
rarily to such an extent that the driver who thus advances his 
ignition and carburation levers to the utmost, with the object 
of getting the maximum of power, may get an exactly opposite 
result—in extreme cases to such an extent that it may be nec¬ 
essary to change on to a lower speed to allow the engine to 
pick up again. Such conditions are sometimes accompanied 
by popping in the carbureter. Of course, some automatic 
carbureters are proof against such inconsiderate treatment, 
but there are very few which are not influenced more or less. 

In some cases the governor is designed to control the igni¬ 
tion, carburation, and throttle, or any two of them in syn¬ 
chronism, with the object of making the control as nearly proof 
as possible against misuse. 

Taking it for granted, however, that there are control levers 



AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 17 

for the driver to operate, we shall now give a few detailed 
hints as to their manipulation. 

The ignition lever should never be fully retarded, except 
when starting the engine. The reason is simple. Under such 
circumstances the combustion of the gas takes place so late 
that much of the power is lost, and it is still in an ignited and 
partly consumed condition when the exhaust valve opens, 
with the result that the engine is excessively heated. On the 
other hand, the ignition should never be advanced to the full 
unless the engine is running at its highest speed. It will, 
therefore, be seen that a medium position is the best for gen¬ 
eral purposes, whether the throttle is fully opened or not, and 
should only be altered when the speed of the engine is ap¬ 
proaching its maximum or minimum. When the engine is 
running idle, the lever might be midway between the medium 
and the fully retarded position, and when it is running faster, 
but not accelerated, it might be between the medium and 
the fully advanced position. 

Briefly, the driver should bear in mind that to get the best 
results he should use the best possible mixture and explode it 
at the best possible time, that is, just as the piston is about to 
descend on its down stroke. He must also bear in mind that 
combustion is not instantaneous, and that the more the mixture 
errs from theoretically correct proportions the slower is the 
combustion, so that in such cases it may be necessary to 
advance the ignition somewhat further than if the mixture 
is perfect. The same result follows if the spark is very feeble 
through the battery running out, short circuits, or some such 
cause. He must also bear in mind, that in the case of high 
tension ignition—whether by coil and battery or by magneto 
—there is a distinct “lag” in the coil, which slightly delays the 
period of combustion, whereas with low tension magneto igni¬ 
tion there is no lag. There is one other point too in connection 
with the latter ignition. The spark is rather of the nature of 
a flame than a spark, so that the combustion is more instan¬ 
taneous. Therefore, the range of effective movement of the 

ignition lever is reduced. This peculiarity is so pronounced 

2 


18 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


that some firms make no provision for varying the timing of 
the spark except for starting purposes. This subject is more 
easily mastered after a study of the various ignition systems. 

The carburation lever, where such is fitted, controls the 
quality of the gas, and the operator should seek by experiment 
to insure the best possible mixture under all conditions, al¬ 
ways bearing in mind that it is better to err on the side of 
too much air than too much gas, because an over-rich mix¬ 
ture not only prevents the engine from giving its full power, 
as in the case of an over-weak mixture, but has the additional 
disadvantage that it fouls the plugs, combustion chamber, etc., 
and causes overheating, in addition to a most pungent smell. 

As a rule the throttle control is connected up to the gov¬ 
ernor, and a throttle lever on the steering wheel restrains the 
action of the governor, so that the driver can by its manipula¬ 
tion make the engine run at any speed between the minimum 
and the maximum. In other cars an accelerator lever or pedal 
is fitted, by means of which the driver can cut the governor 
out of action altogether, and the engine will then, practically 
speaking, race. In this case the throttle lever is used, through 
the medium of the governor, to vary the speed and consequent¬ 
ly the power of the engine within the normal and minimum 
speeds, the ignition lever being operated in sympathy. 

The accelerator lever or pedal should only be used to race 
the engine under exceptional circumstances, that is to say, 
when the very highest speed of the car is desired, or when 
the driver wishes to rush a hill. Many automobilists possessed 
by the speed craze habitually race their engines, thus causing 
excessive wear and tear. It is a great mistake, and results in 
infinite trouble later on. 

As already mentioned, the throttle lever should be operated 
gradually, whether it is desired to increase or diminish the 
speed of the engine. Sometimes, but rarely, an entirely in¬ 
dependent throttle lever is used to control the speed of the 
engine, and it also should be moved gradually. 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


19 


Use of Engine Control Levers. 

The speed and power of the engine are controlled by means 
of hand and foot levers, as follows: 

Ignition—On steering wheel. 

Throttle—On steering wheel. 

Governor—For cutting out the governor at any desired 
point. 

Carburation—Generally on dashboard; used for varying the 
mixture, but now seldom fitted owing to the popularity of au¬ 
tomatic carbureters. 'As a rule, it is not connected with any 
other control. In the Talbot, however, the extra air inlet is 
inter-connected with the ignition lever, so that on advancing 
the spark, as when the engine is running fast, extra air is ad¬ 
mitted. 

The Accelerator Pedal may act as follows: 

( 1 ) On the throttle direct, so that, although the throttle 
lever on the steering wheel is set at a partially open posi¬ 
tion of the throttle, the depression of the accelerator pedal 
will open it fully without altering the position of the lever, 
and when the pedal is released the throttle will return to 
the position decided by the position of the lever on the wheel. 

( 2 ) On the ignition, so that normally the engine runs with 
the ignition partially retarded, but when the accelerator pedal 
is depressed the ignition is advanced. In this case the accel¬ 
erator pedal is generally coupled up to the throttle as well as 
to the ignition, and there is no ignition lever on the steering 
wheel. 

( 3 ) On the governor (when such is fitted), which is set 
normally to keep the engine from running above a prede¬ 
termined speed. In this case the accelerator pedal is aranged 
to hold the governor up against the action of centrifugal force, 
and on being put in action allows the engine to attain a higher 
speed than that to which the governor would otherwise have 
restrained it. 

( 4 ) In combination with a hand lever on the steering wheel, 
which will control the point at which the governor will not 
allow any further rise in the speed of the engine, and which 


20 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


can also be used to control the engine speed should the driver 
elect not to use the accelerator pedal. At whatever point the 
lever is left the governor will cut out, but if the accelerator 
pedal is depressed, it nullifies this action and allows the en¬ 
gine to increase its speed up to the maximum at which it is 
set to run. 

( 5 ) Or it may be coupled both to throttle and ignition as 
before, so as to advance ignition and open the throttle more 
fully than they are set by the two hand levers on the steer¬ 
ing wheel, and, when released, to return them to the posi¬ 
tions fixed by the position of these levers. In this case there 
is no governor. 

( 6 ) It may also be used in connection with the governor 

which controls the throttle, as in case ( 3 ), and at the same 

time to advance the ignition. 

( 7 ) It may also be used in the same way to advance the 

ignition as well as to put the governor in operation as de¬ 

scribed in case ( 4 ), where a hand lever is used in combina¬ 
tion with a governor. 

Principles of Gear Changing. 

It should be understood that whenever two wheels have 
to be put into gear with each other, their edges, or periphery, 
or teeth, whichever term may be used, should be moving at 
the same speed. This does not mean that the wheels should 
be rotating at the same speed. Only when both wheels are 
of the same diameter will this be the case. When they are of 
different sizes the smaller wheel will rotate faster than the 
other, though the speed of its teeth—that is, the distance they 
travel—will necessarily be the same during any given period 
of time. Any tooth on the small wheel will, of course, travel 
a complete circle, while a tooth on the bigger wheel will not 
have completed a circle on account of the larger circumference. 

The Peripheral Speed of two unequal wheels in gear with 
each other remains the same. 

The Angular Velocity, or the time taken by the wheel to 
travel through a certain angle of its circle, varies. 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


21 


The beginner should first get the following facts into his 
head: 

WHEN CHANGING UP—Neutral to low speed. Primary 
shaft revolving; secondary shaft idle. Low speed to second; 
second to third; third to fourth. Primary shaft with its gear 
wheels running comparatively fast; secondary shaft compara¬ 
tively slowly. As one goes up the scale the difference in 
speed of the shafts becomes less. 

WHEN CHANGING DOWN—Primary shaft with its 
gear wheels running comparatively slowly; secondary shaft 
with its gear wheels comparatively fast. As one descends the 
scale the difference in speed of the shafts increases. In most 
cases, when running on the fourth speed, the primary and 
secondary shafts are revolving at the same rate. The effect 
is the same, however, as the primary shaft has to be slowed 
to allow the smaller third speed wheel on it to mesh with the 
larger third speed wheel on the secondary. 

To make a clean change, therefore, when changing up, de¬ 
press the clutch firmly and rapidly, and operate the lever with 
deliberation at first, but quicker when changing from second 
to third and third to fourth. 

When changing down, take the clutch out comparatively 
slowly, so as to allow it to slip, and operate the lever gently 
and deliberately. 

A study of the appended diagrams, Figs. I, 2, 3, 4, and 5, 
will make our meaning plainer. A, B, C, and D represent the 
gear wheels on the primary shaft of a four-speed Panhard type 
of gear, in which the drive is indirect on all speeds; Ai, Bi, 
Cl, and Di represent the gear wheels on the secondary shaft. 
X represents the primary shaft, on which are mounted the 
gear wheels A, B, C, and D. This primary shaft, as its name 
implies, is directly connected with the clutch shaft, and so 
takes the drive directly from the engine. Y is the secondary 
shaft, on which are mounted the gear wheels Ai, Bi, Ci, and 
Di, and from the rear end of which the power is transmitted 
to the road wheels. 


22 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


When the gear lever is in the neutral notch, all the gear 
wheels are out of mesh with each other, and consequently, 
although the engine revolves the shaft X, the power is not 
communicated to the shaft Y, which, provided the car is at 
rest, does not revolve. If, however, the car is running free, 
the turning of the road wheels will necessarily revolve the 
secondary shaft Y with its gear wheels. 

Neutral to Low Speed—Now, taking it for granted that 
the car is at rest and the engine running, it is necessary, be¬ 
fore the power can be communicated to the road wheels, 
that one of the gear wheels on the primary shaft X be moved 
into mesh with one of the gear wheels on the secondary shaft 
Y. Naturally, the low speed wheels will be the first to be 
brought into mesh. In other words, in order to start the car. 



FIG. i —THE VARYING DIAMETERS OF THE WHEELS. 

the very small wheel or pinion A will be moved into mesh 
with the very large wheel Ai. 

Now, the car being at rest, but the engine running, shaft 
Y (including wheel Ai) will be motionless, but shaft X (in¬ 
cluding pinion A) will be revolving. If an attempt were made 
to get into the low speed while this condition of affairs ex¬ 
isted, the teeth of A would grind against the teeth of Ai. 
Consequently, the operator must take the clutch wholly out 
of engagement and wait a few moments until it has ceased 
revolving. Shaft X, and with it pinion A, will then have come 
to rest, and A and Ai can be brought into engagement with 
each other without grinding. (See Fig. 2.) Should the teeth 
come right opposite each other and refuse to engage, replace 
the gear lever in the neutral notch, let the clutch into engage¬ 
ment for the fraction of a second, and try again. 


















AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 23 

In getting into the reverse, the same programme should be 
followed. 

It sometimes happens that the clutch shaft will not stop 
revolving when the clutch pedal is depressed. This is gen¬ 
erally due to the clutch leather having swelled, or, in a plate 
or disk clutch, to the plates or disks sticking together. It 
may also be due to insufficient lubrication of the spigot bear- 
ino* 

To change from neutral into the low speed or reverse is, 
under these circumstances, very difficult. The best plan is 
to slow the engine as much as possible, then suddenly close 
the throttle altogether, operate the gear lever, and then re¬ 
open the throttle before the engine has stopped revolving. 
The teeth of the gear wheels will probably grind a little, but 



FIG. 2 .— POSITION ON LOW SPEED. 

A, Ai, Low speed wheels. D, Di, Top speed wheels. 

B, Bi, Second speed wheels. X, Primary Shaft. 

C, Ci, Third sp.eed wheels. Y, Secondary shaft. 

almost at the first touch the primary shaft, which, of course, 
is moving very slowly, will cease revolving, allowing the teeth 
to mesh. The condition of the clutch should be attended to at 
the first opportunity and the defect remedied. 

From Low Speed to Second—To change from the low to 
the second speed, A must be taken out of engagement with 
Ai, and B moved into engagement with Bi. It will be 
noticed, however, that A is very much smaller than Ai. Con¬ 
sequently, while A and Ai are in mesh, shaft Y (including 
wheel Ai) will be revolving very much slower than shaft X 
(including pinion A). It will be also noticed that there is a 
considerable disparity between the sizes of wheels B and Bi 





























































24 


]AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


(which must be brought into mesh for the second speed), 
though the difference is not so great as between A and Ai. 
As already explained, however, it is essential, if a clean change 
is to be made, that the teeth of B and Bi should be moving 
approximately at the same speed when they are brought to¬ 
gether. In other words, the speed of shaft X has to be re¬ 
duced. (See Fig. 3.) 

To accomplish this, the clutch must be sharply and wholly 
withdrawn just as A and At are taken out of mesh, and the 
gear lever moved gently into the second speed notch, so that 
there will be an appreciable interval in making the change, 
just sufficient and no more, to allow the shaft X, which is 
then disconnected from the clutch shaft, to slow down, so 



that the teeth of the two wheels are traveling at the same 
speed. 

There are other factors, however, which complicate the 
movement, and render great judgment and experience neces¬ 
sary to effect an absolutely clean change. For example, if 
the car is running on the level when the clutch is withdrawn, 
the pace will not drop appreciably in the brief interval of time 
necessary for changing, and, consequently, the road wheels 
will continue to drive shaft Y at almost the same number of 
revolutions per minute as it was revolving before A and Ai 
were taken out of mesh. Under such circumstances, the actual 
movement of the gear lever forward need not take more time 
than about one second, if as much, the period depending to 
some extent on the weight of the clutch, and also the position 
of the throttle, for if it is comparatively open the engine will 






























































AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


25 


race when the load is taken off it, and, therefore, as the clutch 
comes out, it will start revolving’ faster. If, however, the car 
is running up a slight grade when the change is being made, 
it will lose speed more rapidly, and, consequently, it may re¬ 
quire a slightly longer interval—a small fraction of a second 
longer, probably—to allow shaft X to slow down sufficiently 
to permit of B meshing cleanly with Bi. Of course, if too 
long an interval is allowed, the car will have slowed down 
so much before the change is effected that the engine will not 
be able to pick up the higher gear. 

On the other hand, if the car is running down-hill when 
the change is being made, it will increase in speed when the 
clutch is withdrawn, thus causing Y to revolve more rapidly 



than before, and necessitating a less gradual change. The 
delay in moving the lever is in all cases, however, very slight. 
In fact, there need be no actual stop, but rather a gradual 
steady push forward. If the movement is too slow, the speed 
of shaft X will drop too much relatively to that of shaft Y, 
and the teeth of B and Bi will grind. It will then be neces¬ 
sary to let the clutch into engagement again for a fraction of 
a second so as to speed shaft X up a little, and to then continue 
the operation of pushing the change speed lever into the sec¬ 
ond speed notch. 

Second to Third—In changing from second speed to third, 
the same procedure will have to be followed, but as we go 
up the scale the movement should be less gradual owing to 
the disparity in size between the primary and secondary gear 


























































26 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


wheels C and Cl (Fig. 4) being less, and consequently the 
difference in the speed of revolution of shafts X and Y will 
also be less. 

Third to Fourth—In changing from the third to fourth 
speed, it is generally unnecessary to make any pause what¬ 
ever, but to manipulate the lever with a quick, decisive mo¬ 
tion, for in this case shaft X is not revolving much faster than 
shaft Y at the moment that C and Cl are taken out of mesh, 
and wheels D and Di are of equal size. (See Fig. 5.) 

If there is considerable friction between the male and fe¬ 
male portions of the clutch so that it takes an appreciable 
time for the male portion to come wholly out of engagement, 
the slowing down of shaft X will take longer than otherwise. 



If, however, there is a clutch stop fitted, shaft X will slow 
down very rapidly indeed, and the movement of the lever 
when changing up should be rapid. 

Should the driver miss gear when changing up, he had better 
let the clutch into engagement for the fraction of a second, 
return to the gear he was on before, and then try again. 

Changing Down—-When changing down, the condition ex¬ 
isting as to the relative speeds of shafts X and Y renders 
necessary a reversal of the operations. Starting with the 
fourth speed, it will be seen in the diagram that the gear 
wheels D and Di are the same size. Sometimes D is bigger 
than Di—generally when a direct third speed is fitted. If 
D and Di are the same size, shafts X and Y will revolve at 
the same speed, but if D is the bigger, X will revolve slower 



































































AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


27 


than Y. The third speed wheel Cl will, of course, be revolv¬ 
ing at the same speed as Di. C, however, being a smaller 
wheel, will have to rotate quicker than Ci, to insure the teeth 
meshing, and consequently the shaft X will have to be quick¬ 
ened so as to enable these two wheels to mesh easily. The 
same applies to B and Bi and A and Ai; but as the disparity 
in size is greater as lower speed gears are reached, the shaft 
X will have to be speeded up proportionately. 

This speeding up of shaft X is accomplished by slipping 
the clutch—that is, by not taking it wholly out of engage¬ 
ment as when changing up, but by allowing the male portion 
to remain slightly in contact with the female. What is neces¬ 
sary is that the clutch should be so far withdrawn as to ease 
the pressure of the teeth against each other, so that the gears 
may be moved out of mesh. As soon as they come out of 
mesh, the clutch, still having a certain hold of the shaft, 
which is now free from the driving strain, rotates the latter 
at an accelerated speed owing to the engine automatically ac¬ 
celerating when the load is taken off. 

The amount of slipping necessary can only be found by 
experience and experiment. As the different stages between 
high and low are reached, the disparity between the size of 
the gear wheels increases and, consequently, shaft Y has to 
be increasingly accelerated. 

When changing into the reverse, the driver should be very 
careful not to attempt to make the change until the road 
wheels have come to rest. It is wise also to keep the clutch 
out, before making the change, sufficiently long to insure the 
primary shaft coming to rest. 

We have dealt with the Panhard system because it is more 
simple to explain with it what is necessary in gear changing. 
In other gears, as in the case of the Mercedes type, in which a 
direct drive is obtained, and in which the power is transmitted 
to a countershaft and back to an extension of the primary 
shaft, exactly the same conditions obtain, and exactly the 
same methods of changing must be adopted. 

If the countershaft in this case is regarded as the primary, 


28 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


which it practically is, it will be seen that it is in reality a 
Panhard type. In such cases, however, the direct top gear 
is easier to get into owing to it being accomplished by engag¬ 
ing some form of dog clutch instead of sliding wheels into 
mesh sideways. 

So far we have dealt with general principles. There are 
other factors to be taken into consideration, however, such 
as the speed of the engine at the moment of changing and 
the variations in different designs. We shall deal with the 
engine speed first. 

The Engine Speed as a Factor. 

It will be easily understood that, if the engine is driving 
with the throttle open, or nearilv open, as the clutch is with¬ 
drawn, the engine will race as the load has been taken off. 
Hence, there will be a brief period, at the moment when the 
male portion of the clutch is just coming out of engagement 
with the female, when the acceleration of the latter will cause 
a considerable increase in the revolution speed of the male 
portion, and, as the male portion drives the shaft X, there 
will also be an increase of speed in the shaft X. This increase 
of speed will, needless to say, further increase the difficulty 
of making a clean change. 

The exception to this is in the case of those gears which 
have a direct third speed and an indirect fourth speed; or 
where the secondary shaft is idle on the direct gear. In the 
former the car is geared up on the top speed, and, therefore, 
the operation of gear changing will be modified accordingly. 
In the latter case, changing gear from top to next gear will be 
rendered easier. 

To obviate this difficulty, it is a common practice to take 
the foot off the accelerator, or operate the throttle lever, as 
the case may be, at the moment that the clutch is withdrawn, 
thus preventing the engine from racing when the load is taken 
off it. The moment the change of gear has been effected, it 
is necessary for the driver to push down the accelerator pedal 
again or operate the throttle lever without a moment’s delay. 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


29 


Tn some cases the clutch pedal is connected up to the throttle, 
and partly closes it when the clutch is withdrawn. On the 
level or down hill the closing of the throttle, and consequent 
slowing of the engine, works admirably, but on an up-gra-de 
it tends to reduce the power of the engine so much at a 
critical period that, unless the change is made very quickly 
and the throttle opened again with the least possible delay, the 
engine either picks up very slowly or else fails to pick up at 
all, so that when changing up on an ascent it may become 
necessary to drop back to the lower gear, or, when changing 
down, to drop a stage farther on to a still lower gear. 

It is when changing up that the difficulty is greatest. As 
already explained, it is necessary that shaft X should be 
slowed, and that as quickly as possible, for every moment that 
elapses while the clutch is out the car is losing its momentum 
and slowing down. This slows down shaft Y (which was al¬ 
ready traveling much slower than shaft X), consequently it 
adds still further to the difference between the speed of the 
two shafts. In other words, if shaft X accelerates abnormally 
at the moment the clutch is being withdrawn, it means a 
longer wait to allow it to slow, and during this longer wait Y 
is also steadily slowing down through the car losing its momen¬ 
tum. Hence, when the change is at last effected, the car has 
slowed so much that the engine may not be able to take up 
the drive, and one has to drop back again to the lower gear. 

Also, there is another disadvantage. If the clutch is let 
in gradually when the engine is racing furiously, extreme fric¬ 
tion will be generated which may burn the clutch leather. If 
it is let in suddenly, the strain on the engine and transmission 
systems will be enormous. 

It will be seen, therefore, that there must not be undue 
delay when changing up on a hill, and that the engine must 
not be allowed to race furiously while the clutch is out. 

The best practice is, immediately before changing, to throt¬ 
tle down to a point which would give in or about normal en¬ 
gine speed with the load off. Then change as rapidly as is 
possible without grinding the gear wheels, and just as the 


30 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


clutch is being* let in again (but before it has fully engaged), 
open the throttle. The engine will then be accelerating again 
just as the male portion of the clutch is coming into frictional 
contact with the female, and unless the grade is too close to 
the limit of the gear it will pick up steadily, even when the 
full load comes on. 

When changing down on an up-grade the difficulty is not 
so great. To insure a clean change, we want to increase the 
speed of shaft X as compared with shaft Y. The falling off 
in the momentum and speed of the car will assist towards 
this end by reducing the speed of Y. Consequently the en¬ 
gine can be run faster during the change when changing down 
than when changing up, especially if the clutch is only slipped 
slightly during the change; but, of course, the engine, and 
with it X, must not be accelerated too much. The change, 
as a rule, can be made fairly rapidly, and as the engine is 
running at a reasonably fast speed, it will pick up well. 

On the level or down-hill the engine should always be throt¬ 
tled off, as under such circumstances there is no difficulty in 
picking up. The operator should be careful that the speed at 
which the car is traveling approximates to that to which he is 
about to descend, and, consequently, if he is changing on the 
level, for the sake of traffic or such like, he should first slow 
down the car by means of the throttle, or by taking the clutch 
out momentarily. In the latter case it facilitates changing to 
let the clutch into operation again for a fraction of a second, 
and declutch again slowly before effecting the change. 

There is another system of changing down on a descent 
which works most satisfactorily, but requires some learning. 
With the throttle almost closed, take the clutch out of en¬ 
gagement, move the gears in operation out of mesh, but then 
pause with the gear lever between the two gears; next let the 
clutch in for a moment so as to speed up primary shaft X, 
declutch and change slowly into the lower gear. Under such 
circumstances, the car is likely to be traveling too fast for 
the lower gear, and, consequently, the clutch should be let 
into engagement very slowly or the car speed will be checked 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 31 

with a suddenness that will strain both engine and transmis¬ 
sion. 

The Use of the Brakes. 

Nothing is more detrimental to a car than the improper and 
excessive use of the brakes. The driver should bear in mind 
that, no matter what system is adopted of checking speed—- 
with the exception of the forces of gravity or inertia—a strain 
is brought to bear on the transmission system and tires, and 
that this strain becomes excessive and exceedingly detrimental 
if the car is checked or stopped with great suddenness. In most 
cases the engine itself forms a fairly efficient brake, and acts 
more smoothly and more gradually than is possible for any 
mechanical brake. For this reason it is less likely to cause 
side-slip. The best way, therefore, to stop a car is to grad¬ 
ually close the throttle, and the driver should begin to do so 
in ample time, so that the retarding influence may be as gentle 
and gradual as possible. To get the maximum stopping effect 
it is generally necessary to switch off the ignition, because very 
few throttles are so perfect in action that a certain amount 
of explosive mixture does not find its way through. In de¬ 
scending steep hills, however, the strain to the engine is con¬ 
siderable where this method of braking is solely employed, and 
consequently the rear wheel brakes should be used to assist 
the engine, for which purpose it is, of course, necessary that 
they should be disconnected from the clutch. 

Some types of engine are so designed that the engine prac¬ 
tically becomes an air compressor, and affords an exceedingly 
powerful and reliable form of brake. The pedal-regulated cam¬ 
shaft which attains this end should be gradually operated, and 
on steep hills the hind wheel brakes should be used to assist 
the engine. 

As regards the hand and foot-applied brakes, all are agreed 
that one should be disconnected from the engine, and many 
experts consider that this should be done in the case of both. 
Of course under such circumstances it is very necessary to de¬ 
clutch by means of the clutch pedal when the car is being 
brought to an absolute standstill. These hand and foot-applied 


32 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


brakes should invariably be applied gradually, except in the 
case of a sudden and serious emergency. For general applica¬ 
tion, as in traffic for example, the foot-applied brake is the 
most convenient, but it causes the greatest amount of strain, 
owing to the braking effort being taken up through the trans¬ 
mission system. For this reason the rear wheel brakes should 
be used on all steep down-grades in preference to the counter¬ 
shaft brake, and great care should be observed to see that the 
compensating mechanism is in order, so that the retarding in¬ 
fluence on one wheel is not greater than on the other. 

The driver should train himself in the constant application 
of the hand brake, and he cannot do this better than by using 
the hand brake exclusively, say for a week at a time, so 
that he may instinctively be able to use this brake quickly in 
case of an emergency, instead of having to fumble clumsily 
for the lever. Needless to say, it is essential for safety that 
all brakes should be kept in perfect order, and it is a wise pre¬ 
caution to test them within the first few minutes after start¬ 
ing. There is no more hopeless position than to unexpectedly 
find one’s brakes out of order when called upon to make a 
sudden stop. 

Tapping in the Engine. 

Sometimes it will be noticed that the engine, which has been 
running perfectly well and easily, will begin to make a slight 
tapping sound. It is not sufficiently pronounced to be called 
a knock, and very often it will puzzle the driver to know what 
it is caused by, and in the majority of cases he will be apt to 
put it down to some slight peculiarity of his valves. As a 
matter of fact, it is nothing of the kind, but is due to very slight 
premature ignition which is easily remedied. 

One Cause of Irregular Firing. 

If one’s engine is heard to knock very violently, so much 
so that the first impression given is that either the crank-shaft 
has broken or the big end bearing bolts have got adrift, it is 
well before jumping at such a conclusion to carefully examine 
the ignition. In one such case which occurred at the end of a 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


33 


short tour, the engine started knocking so badly that the owner 
of the car feared to. run it any further, and left it some thirty 
miles from home, wiring the makers that something had gone 
seriously wrong with the engine. It was ultimately discovered 
that the contact blade of the commutator was fractured and 
that the knock was due entirely to irregular firing caused 
thereby. 

Want of Gasolene: Its Symptoms. 

It is often a simple thing which causes an involuntary stop. 
This was brought home to a writer on the automobile press 
very forcibly on one occasion. The particular small car he was 
driving had the gasolene tank beneath the seat, and the supply 
to the carbureter was shut oft" by means of a needle valve. 
Through frequent use the thread of this valve had become suf¬ 
ficiently worn to enable the road vibrations to shake it round, 
and thus reduce the supply of gasolene. In the first place, he 
could not account for the extraordinary loss of power in the 
engine. Power rapidly decreased, and then firing back through 
the air inlet of the carbureter began to give additional trouble. 
When this stage was reached he considered it quite time to 
investigate matters. The first cause to which he attributed the 
trouble was bad inlet valves. These were examined, and 
found to be working quite correctly. He then tried starting the 
engine up, and it went at first turn, but very quickly repeated 
the previous performance, and back-fired through the carburet¬ 
er. The next move was to examine the carbureter to see 
whether it was getting sufficient of the necessary fluid. It was 
found that the supply valve was very nearly closed, thus al¬ 
lowing only half the needful quantity of gasolene to pass to 
the carbureter. 

Effect of Plunging Cars on the Carbureter. 

When light, very easily sprung cars are driven with but one 
or two passengers on the front seat—the plunging of the cars 
over rough roads will be found to affect the gasolene feed to 
the float chamber of the carbureter. The plunging will cause 
the float to jump and flood or shut off the feed, so that for a 


34 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


few moments the engine is starved of gas. Next to weight on 
the back part of the car, this involuntary cutting out of the 
engine, when gasolene is fed by gravity, may be largely pre¬ 
vented by keeping the gasolene tank full. The head of gaso¬ 
lene appears considerably to check the undesirable action of 
the float when the car is plunging on bad roads. 

To Avoid Sideslip Downhill. 

Most owners have had experience of driving on frozen roads, 
and the novice will find, or has already found, that extreme 
precaution is necessary when descending winding hills. There 
is one practically safe method of descending without danger, 
and this applies, of course, to slippery roads of any kind in 
cities. It consists of driving with the wheels at one side in 
the gutter. If one wheel is already in the gutter, there is very 
little tendency for the car to slip out of it. Again, if the car 
is close to the sidewalk, a slip of an inch or two into the curb¬ 
stone is not much to worry about. As long as one stays in the 
gutter it is impossible for the car to turn round and go broad¬ 
side down the hill. Further, in many cases roads are only 
frozen on the crown, and at the side and in the gutter there is 
pretty good holding. 

Luck and the Tire Bill. 

Undoubtedly a very large item in the cost of running one’s 
own car is that due to the upkeep of the pneumatic tires. 
This item varies very largely with different drivers of cars, 
and a low bill for tires is usually attributed to luck. Now, luck 
plays a very inconsiderable part in this respect; really and 
truly, one might say no part at all other than that of missing 
broken glass, horseshoe nails, etc. The most serious damage 
which is done to tires is that due to excessive speed, overload¬ 
ing, sudden letting in of the clutch, misuse of the brakes, and 
driving over newly paved roads with the full power of the 
engine operating at the road wheels. All of these are practi¬ 
cally solely and entirely due to bad driving, and have nothing 
to do with inherent bad properties of the tire. With the flexi¬ 
ble throttle control, as fitted to modern cars, the necessity of 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


35 


constantly applying brakes vanishes, and if only reasonable 
care is exercised by a driver, almost the whole of the running 
can be done on the throttle; hence the brake need only be used 
on very severe hills and for pulling up at any place. Some 
clutches are much fiercer in action than others, but the knack 
of gently letting in the clutch can be acquired if intelligently 
practiced, so that no snatch is transmitted from the engine 
to the road wheels. The sudden action of any clutch or brake 
simply causes lumps to be ripped from the tread of a tire when 
on a rough road and thus the life is very considerably reduced. 

Another point is overloading the tire. The buyer of a car 
should insist upon having tires with an ample margin for the 
weight carried. The first cost may be a few dollars higher, 
but in the long run this is saved over and over again. 

It should always be remembered that wet surfaces cut rub¬ 
ber much more readily than dry. In the case of small cuts on 
the tread these should at once be filled with one of the special 
tire repair preparations, to prevent them opening out or being 
further cut. If these remarks are properly digested, the tire 
bill will be considerably lessened apart from so-called luck. 

Driving over Loose .Stones. 

A careful driver becomes much exercised as to how he may 
do his tires the least possible amount of harm when passing 
over a newly-laid patch of stones. The more general method 
is co drop down on to the bottom speed and go over as gently 
as may be, yet this oftentimes results in the tires being badly 
cut. Now, if when approaching a patch of loose stones the car 
is allowed to run right up to it at speed, and the clutch is taken 
out before the front wheels strike the stones, the vehicle will 
have sufficient momentum to carry it over most ordinary 
patches of new laid pavement at a minimum risk to the tires. 
If the momentum is insufficient to carry the car past the 
stones, nothing remains but to drop to the low speed and go 
on gently. On no account should the clutch be let in so that 
momentum may be maintained as immediately the engine be¬ 
gins to drive when the gear ratio speed is above that of the 


36 AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 

speed of the vehicle the very worst cutting action is put on the 
tires. 

Driving Home on the Rim. 

It must occasionally fall to the lot of every automobilist 
to find himself obliged to drive home on the rim—in other 
words, he is unable to keep any air in his tire, he is without 
spare tires or too short of time to struggle with a refractory 
inner tube, and so elects to drive on, and ignore the conse¬ 
quences. Common prudence will suggest a moderate speed, 
and if the distance to be traversed be short, the security bolts 
well tightened, and the road surface smooth, it is possible that 
little harm may be done. Supposing the cover to be badly 
burst, while the tube is in good condition bar the burst, it is 
a good plan to remove it and drive on the cover alone—its 
last drive most likely. If both cover and tube are in good 
order, and the deflation is due to a puncture or loose patch, it 
is well to screw the bolts up for all they are worth, and if the 
cause of puncture is to be found in the shape of a nail or 
piece of glass, remove it. When putting things right in the 
privacy of your garage you will doubtless find the leather 
heads of the security bolts badly crumpled; if they will 
straighten out so much the better, if not they can be made 
good with canvas. A most important point is to see that they 
are not bent out of shape as regards the plates which form 
the heads. These are in the form of a flat bottomed V, and the 
sides are very liable to spread under such treatment as sug¬ 
gested. If they are put back in such condition they fail to bed 
down into the rim, and in consequence the inner tube will 
be able to blow down under them, and give way at inconven¬ 
ient times. Not that any time is convenient for tire trouble, 
but some times are less inconvenient than others. 

Gear Missing in Speed Changes. 

If, when changing speed, the gear misses, depress the clutch 
pedal again quickly, and the gears will invariably come in 
at once without causing any jar upon them. When firmly in, 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 37 

the clutch should be let in gently to pick up the momentum 
the car has lost. 

Engine Thumping at Gear Changes. 

Sometimes when a gear change from a lower to a higher 
speed has been made, it will be found that the engine com¬ 
mences to thump heavily. This is due to the fact that the 
change has been made a little too soon and before the speed 
of the car or the resistance warranted it. The thumping can 
be instantly stopped by lightly touching the clutch pedal, so 
that a little slip takes place. The engine then quickly picks 
up, and the thumping ceases. 

Epicyclic Gear Changing. 

Owners of cars with epicvcloidal change speed gearing 
should be particularly careful to change their gears gently. 
As a matter of fact, the amateur driver who is used to sliding 
gear changing is, for a short time, hopelessly at sea on a car 
with the type of gear mentioned, for whereas with the sliding 
gear a quick motion is necessary for gear changing, the other 
type requires a gradual feeling action for the change. Thus, 
on cars employing epicyclic gears, the driver should be careful 
to apply the brake which changes the gear as gradually as 
possible, otherwise the strain on the gear is very consid¬ 
erable, and stripping a by no means distant possibility. Lu¬ 
brication of the drums is quite permissible, and is usually 
provided for, but if not, the driver of the car should see that 
some thin oil is used occasionally to grease the peripheries of 
the various speed-changing brake drums. 

Returning to the Slow Speed Gear. 

When one has run up to and come to a rest at a point at 
which it is desired to stop on top speed, a little difficulty will 
sometimes be found in returning the change speed lever to the 
neutral notch in the quadrant. The teeth of the toothed wheels 
on the sliding sleeve on the clutchshaft do not at the moment 
exactly coincide with the gaps in the toothed wheels on the 
gearshaft, and the wheels will not pass each other. Of course, 


38 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


the clutch can be let in slightly, which would alter their 
position with regard to each other, but not infrequently the 
teeth still foul. The depression of the brake pedal, however, 
and the consequent grip of the brake bands, or blocks, on the 
brake drum will, permitted by the slight play in the propeller- 
shaft, cause the gearshaft to move just enough to permit the 
passage of the wheels on the sliding sleeve through their fel¬ 
lows, and allow the neutral notch to be at once attained. 

To Learn Changing Gear. 

This can be done in the garage or anywhere private. Block 
up the rear axle well and solidly, so that the tires are at least 
two inches from the ground level, and wedge the front wheels 
at front and back, with substantial wedges or planks. Start 
up the engine again, and sit at the steering wheel seat; depress 
the clutch pedal slightly, and gently work the speed lever to 
try and bring it into the first speed notch. Probably a grating 
noise will be heard, and you may fail to get the wheels prop¬ 
erly in mesh. Let back the lever to its original position and 
try again. If the lever goes into the notch, then at once let 
up the clutch pedal gently, and you will notice the rear wheels 
will at once commence to revolve. Depress the clutch and they 
will stop; let it in again and they start. Practice this, and 
afterward try to get in the next speed higher, first by depress¬ 
ing the clutch, and at the same instant bring the speed lever 
into the next higher notch, and immediately let the clutch in 
gently without loss of time. The rear wheels will now revolve 
faster, and you can then try higher speeds; then practice re¬ 
ducing the gear by doing everything in the same order. While 
on each of the gears, the engine can be run fast or slow with 
the throttle and spark levers, as before mentioned. The re¬ 
verse can then be tried exactly in the same manner, most cars 
having the reverse and forward speeds actuated by means of 
one lever. In the exceptions to this rule there is no difficulty 
in following out the operations to be gone through if the levers 
are carefully examined and their effect noted when they are 
operated. 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


39 


Never Look at the Lever Quadrant. 

One occasionally comes across car owners of some experi¬ 
ence—men, too, who profess to be particularly keen upon mas¬ 
tering the technique of their machines—who have not acquired 
such rudimentary skill as is involved in changing gears without 
looking down to see when the lever is alongside a notch in the 
quadrant. It may be excusable for absolute beginners to do 
this, but it is an extremely dangerous practice when driving in 
traffic to take one’s eyes from the road in order to look down at 
the quadrant when changing gears. Particularly at night time 
should the practice be avoided, so that the dodge of rigging up 
an electric lamp in a position where it will illuminate the 
quadrant must be regarded as the invariable sign of the clumsy 
beginner. Gear should be changed by feeling, not by sight. 
The only time the quadrant should be looked at is when one 
has stopped on the top speed. One should then see that the 
lever has been put in the neutral notch before leaving the car. 

Driving on the Brake. 

It is very bad practice to drive on the brake, though some 
people who know no better think it showy. By driving on the 
brake we mean driving jerkily. For instance, we will assume 
that the driver is coming to a turn or overtaking a block in 
the traffic. Instead of reducing his speed gradually as soon as 
he sees the necessity for a slack or perhaps a stop, he rushes 
up to the point, and then jams on all his brakes and pulls his 
car up dead. The next moment, as the necessity for the slack 
has passed, he crowds on all available power without allowing 
his engine a moment to recover and introduce itself gradually 
to its car. This sort of thing ruins any engine and car, as it 
subjects them to extremely severe shocks and strains. In 
fact, there is no doubt whatever that more than one mysterious 
failure has been caused by the parts being overstrained through 
this reprehensible manner of driving. 

Using the Brakes. 

The fact that there are two or more brakes to every car 
seems to have escaped the notice of many drivers, for in 


40 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


a large proportion of cases the hand brake is used solely as 
a sort of stand-by. The foot brake is always used, the hand 
brake rarely, with the result that the first is unduly worn, 
while the wheel drums are hardly ever called into play. Now, 
apart from the fact that this is not economy, it is very bad 
driving policy, in that the driver, never using his hand brake, 
does not cultivate the instinctive operative faculty, with the 
result that in cases of urgent need thought is necessary before 
he can apply his emergency brake. Now, on many of the old 
pattern cars this was perhaps excusable, for the lever was 
frequently very awkward to reach and cumbrously unhandy. 
On the newer cars, however, this has been altered. In many 
cases, the hand brake lever is pivoted to and swings over a 
parallel quadrant to that for the change-speed lever, and it is 
generally in convenient reach of the driver. 

The Rational Method of Braking. 

Beyond this, many makers have gone a step further, and so 
arranged that their brake lever pulls back towards the driver, 
in place of the older push-forward motion. This is the rational 
action, since, should it be necessary to apply the whole brak¬ 
ing power the car possesses, the driver would be pushing with 
his feet and pulling with his hand, each force exerted trans¬ 
ferring its reaction to the other brake, thus rendering the mo¬ 
tions both more efficient and more natural. With almost all 
wheel brakes, compensating devices are fitted, so that the re¬ 
tarding action on each wheel is the same, and all the strain is 
taken bv the hub of the wheel. Where the countershaft brake 

mf 

or brakes or the propeller-shaft brake is used, there is all the 
slack in the chains or the lash in the teeth to be taken up 
before the action takes place, or, in other words, there is a 
reversal of strain from the brake backward. If you want your 
car to last, use the hand brake for ordinary driving more wide¬ 
ly. It is only a question of use. Use is second nature, and the 
cultivation of the Hand brake may save the automobilist a 
serious accident. In the interests of public safety also every 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 41 

driver should accustom himself to the instant use of all his 
available braking power. 

Driving on Treacherous Roads. 

Those who are unfamiliar with the gyrations of a motor 
car under the influence of sideslip are often at a loss to know 
what to do when the car begins to slip even in a gentle man¬ 
ner. Now, as a matter of fact, sideslip is one of those things 
which come upon one suddenly; but if a number of such side¬ 
slips are analyzed they will be found to be due to a too harsh 
application of the brakes, or to the upward changing of the 
gears, when the conditions are such as not to permit of the 
road wheels taking up the increased speed applied to them and 
at the same time getting a firm grip of the road. As a general 
rule, it will be found, if one drives on one’s proper side of the 
road, that the tendency of the car is to slip towards the off or 
right-hand side, this being due to the camber of the road, so 
that the rear wheels of the car have an inclination to slide upon- 
the greasy surface down to the gutter. On some of the nar¬ 
row and highly cambered roads occasionally met with there is 
the greatest difficulty experienced in keeping the car straight. 
The natural inclination is for it to proceed crab fashion rather 
than in a straight line. 

Conduct in Sideslip. 

Under such circumstances it is perhaps better to wait until 
the way is clear, when the car can be put directly across the 
road and again brought on to the crown, when all will go 
well so long as the crown of the road is kept to. Under other 
circumstances, when the car shows an inclination to slip 
towards the right, if the front wheels are also steered towards 
the right they have a wholesome checking influence upon the 
rear wheels, which, once having commenced to slide, prefer 
to take the front wheels as a pivot whereon to turn, and if the 
pace or the weight of the car and the general conditions are 
such as to give sufficient momentum, it is not at all unusual 
for the car to turn completely round. In such instances the 
checking influence of the front wheels is not very great, but is 


42 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


frequently sufficient to prevent the car doing any various dam¬ 
age to itself. If, on the other hand, the wheels are burned out¬ 
ward, they only aggravate the sideslip by causing the driving 
wheels to push the front of the car more up on to the crown 
of the road, so giving sufficient momentum at the rear end 
either to turn the car itself completely round, or possibly to 
damage the rear wheels or axles seriously by a violent col¬ 
lision with the curb. 

Starting under Difficulties. 

If an engine will not start on the switch, and the starting 
handle is lost or so bent through a collision as to be useless, 
the car may be pushed with the engine in gear, or even jacked 
up at the back. This plan has been tried occasionally when 
a back wheel was turned by hand, which, of course, made the 
engine work. Directly it fires, the speed lever must be put 
into the neutral position and the jack removed. This opera¬ 
tion, however, needs care, particularly when the car has a chain 
drive. 

A few cars are still used with detachable starting handles 
and these, like any other articles, can be lost. If the engine 
will start on the switch, the problem of getting a car under way 
is easily solved. Another alternative is to put the car in gear 
and get a person to push the car. If, however, one has no pas¬ 
sengers, and there is nobody at hand to give assistance, the 
difficulty is one which might be thought to be insurmount¬ 
able. 

We give one method suggested for overcoming the diffi¬ 
culty, but which should not be put into practice unless every¬ 
thing else fails. 

One rear wheel should be jacked up, and everything set for 
starting. The jacked-up wheel should now be pulled round 
in a forward direction, which will rotate the engine. The 
top gear should be put into engagement, as the engine will 
then start with less manual effort. Directly the engine is 
rotated, the speed lever should be put into the neutral gear 
position, before the jack is removed. 




AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 43 

Starting a Motor on Coal Gas. 

When attempting to start a gasolene engine “from the 
cold/’ instead of injecting gasolene into the cylinders or warm¬ 
ing the carbureter with hot cloths, insert one end of a piece of 
rubber gas tubing in the air intake of carbureter, and connect 
the other end of tube to the nearest gas bracket. Upon turning 
on the gas, the engine will be found to go off at the first or 
second turn of the starting handle, and, unless it be of very 
large dimensions or the gas supply very attenuated, will con¬ 
tinue to run at a moderate speed. Gasolene can now be turned 
on, the carbureter flooded, and, after a few seconds, the gas 
turned off, leaving the engine running on gasolene. This 
method will be found very simple in practice, and saves much 
exertion at the starting handle. When an engine is missing 
fire, it can readily be ascertained by running the engine on 
coal gas as described above, whether the carbureter is at fault 
or not. 

One word of caution: Owing to the strong suction in the 
air intake, the coal gas is sucked out of the gas main much 
faster than it would issue by its own pressure, and the result 
is that any lights in the vicinity will probably be sucked out. 

Popping in the Muffler. 

Numerous owners who have learned to drive a De Dion 
car, enquire how to account for explosions in the exhaust-box, 
and how they can be prevented. One such owner says that 
the engine must be bewitched, inasmuch as it nearly always 
pops when passing restive horses. The explanation is simple, 
and the cure of the phenomenon easy. Popping in the muffler 
nearly always occurs through the mixture being too weak, so 
that the charge is not exploded in the cylinder, but passes out 
through the exhaust-valve into the muffler, where it is ignited 
by the heat of the exhaust pipe or box. When traveling fast, 
the mixture lever is adjusted to admit plenty of air to the 
carbureter; in the De Dion car the mixture lever is pushed 
toward the steering column, while the timing lever is pushed 
forward for early sparking; but when the pace is suddenly 


44 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


checked, as it naturally would be when approaching a restive 
horse, the mixture is upset because the piston speed is not 
sufficiently great to suck in a sufficiency of spray to mingle 
with the air; thus it happens that the very act of suddenly 
checking the car in order to pass a restive horse slowly has 
the effect of provoking explosions. The remedy is always to 
remember to push the mixture lever forward when suddenly 
checking speed. 

Gasolene Leakage : Lamp Dangers. 

If a leak in the gasolene tank or connections is discovered 
at night, the lamps should be put out at once, and care taken 
that no light is brought near the car. If it is impossible to 
rectify the leak without light, and no electric lamp or torch is 
available, the acetylene lamp may be lighted and placed at 
least four yards from the car. When the leak is stopped, the 
escaped gasolene should be wiped away, and a few minutes 
should be spent in waiting for what is left to evaporate before 
attempting to light the lamps. 

Driving with Slack Chains. 

“It once fell to our lot to drive a light car having side chain 
drive,” writes an early enthusiast in motoring. “These chains 
were so loose as to cause some anxiety, for there was every 
possibility of their leaving the sprockets. This eventually 
happened, but luckily gave no great trouble in replacement. 
Tt was found that the stretcher bars had been lengthened out 
to their utmost, and, therefore, there was no chance of giving 
the chains the necessary adjustment; and being well on into 
the night, it was hardly a pleasant task to start taking a link 
out of both chains. To prevent further possibility of the chain 
coming off, we religiously stuck to the second gear for the 
remainder of our journey—some sixteen or eighteen miles— 
and drove on the brake when descending hills. The object of 
this was to keep the chain taut on its top side, with the engine 
throttled down and the brake just applied sufficiently to re¬ 
tard the car to keep the chain in the desired position, and 
this prevented all further troubles.” 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


45 


Extemporizing a Valve Spring. 

A useful addition to the motorist’s outfit is a length of piano 
wire about the same gauge as the existing inlet spring. It not 
infrequently happens that a proper valve spring is not in¬ 
cluded in the spare parts carried, and when one of these be¬ 
comes weakened or breaks, it is often a matter of difficulty 
to get even so small a thing into proper working order again. 
By carrying a piece of wire of this type, a spring of prac¬ 
tically any required strength can be made and used without 
the necessity of tempering, as would be the case with most 
of the other kinds of wire used for spring making. This may 
appear to some to be superfluous, but many owners have had 
experiences in which a length of wire would have meant a 
great saving of time and temper had it been available. 

Hauling a Car. 

In the event of a breakdown irremediable upon the road, 
when recourse must be made to haulage by another car, or 
anything that can exert tractive force, care should be taken 
as to the manner in which the tow rope is attached to the car. 
It is by no means advisable to make the tow rope fast to the 
front axle; it is better to secure it to the projecting ends of 
the frame, which serve as spring horns, and pass the rope be¬ 
tween these and the ends of the springs themselves. The 
haulage stress is then distributed evenly through the frame 
to both axles. The ends of the rope so passed should be taken 
and attached to any suitable part of the haulage equipment. 
If the car is to be loaded up on to a dray or wagon, take care 
that the wheels of the dray are securely blocked before any 
attempt is made to run the car up the inclined planks by which 
the floor of the dray is to be gained. Be ready also with suit¬ 
able blocks or rods to secure the wheels of the car and arrest 
it at any part of the ascent if this should prove necessary 
from any cause whatever. Where a car has sustained such 
damage to one of the front wheels that it cannot travel on it, 
a strong pole may be passed under the front axle or the frame, 
and fastened to the back axle. The front end of the pole can 


46 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


then be attached to the towing vehicle, so that the damaged 
wheel is raised just off the ground. 

Steering with Broken Gear. 

Happily, steering gears are not now so prone to give way 
as they were a few years ago, but should any reader be so 
unfortunate as to have a distance rod of the steering gear come 
adrift, the following tip may be of use: Failing any temporary 
repairs, the car should be turned round by manual aid, and 
the front wheel which is not connected to the steering wheel 
should be lashed up to prevent its turning athwart the car. 
The vehicle may now be driven slowly backward, steering by 
the one wheel, which now becomes a trailer. This method 
is, of course, bad for the tire, and should only be resorted to 
when a repair can be effected within a couple of miles or so. 

Economizing Gasolene. 

The distance which one driver can accomplish on a given 
quantity of gasolene is often a subject of much astonishment 
to the driver of another and similar car, who finds it almost 
impossible to get the same results out of his own vehicle, al¬ 
though it is, as we have remarked, identical with the one con¬ 
suming the lower quantity. The whole question lies in the 
fact that the one who is able to use a lower quantity of gaso¬ 
lene has hit upon the correct method of running his engine— 
and that is allowing the carbureter to take in as much air as 
it possibly can, and still to retain a good mixture. The most 
effective mixture of spirituous vapor and air is that which will 
run the engine at its highest power, which power is in no way 
increased by increasing the richness of the mixture. What is 
really meant by this can easily be ascertained by the owner 
of any motor in the following manner: Close down the air 
opening to the carbureter so as to obtain a rich mixture for 
starting, and then turn the starting handle, when the motor 
commences to work. Attention should now be turned to the 
air inlet. Open this slowly, and if a governor is fitted this 
should previously have been put out of action by the accelera¬ 
tor being pulled up or tied down, as the case may be. As the 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


47 


mixture assumes its better proportion, the engine will per¬ 
ceptibly quicken its speed, and with its speed the power, of 
course, increases. Continue opening the air inlet until it is 
wide open, and if there is no marked diminution in the speed 
of the engine, it may be assumed that it is running on the 
best proportion of mixture obtainable. If, on the other hand, 
the engine begins to slow down, the air inlet should be closed 
down again until the engine picks up its previous speed and 
gives out that note which spells power. The engine is now 
running to its best advantage, and is consuming the smallest 
amount of gasolene possible. At the same time this is only a 
rough guide to getting the correct adjustment, as the engine 
is doing no work. A road trial must be made to see how 
nearly the garage ideal can be reached. This applies to the 
vast majority of carbureter adjustments. 

Contributory Causes of Loss of Power. 

From time to time one comes across motors of which their 
owners complain that, while they do very well on the level, 
they behave scandalously when a hill of any gravity presents 
itself before them. Making a general and cursory test, it is 
found that the compression in each cylinder is good, the igni¬ 
tion apparently satisfactory, the timing correct, the operation 
of the valves visually good—in fact, there seems nothing em¬ 
phatically responsible for the sluggishness of which the owner 
complains. Now, there is only one thing to do in such case, 
and that one comprises many. It is to go carefully and mi¬ 
nutely through the motor, and, though it will not be found 
that any one detail is radically at fault, yet it is more than 
probable that one or more sparking plugs are dirty or have 
spark gaps too large, the electrical connections are somewhere 
loose and dirty, there is a slight short somewhere, there is 
deposit in the carbureter, or the gauze filters at the bottom 
of the tank or in the union close to the float feed chamber are 
more or less choked, an exhaust spring is weak and its valve 
does not close as smartly as it should, the holes in the muffler 
are choked with mud or grease and there is some back pressure 


48 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


caused thereby, one of the brakes is rubbing more or less on 
its drum, a pneumatic tire is soft, the accumulators are down 
a bit, or there is a considerable deposit of carbon on the com¬ 
bustion chamber walls and piston heads. These small matters 
taken separately do not appear to be particularly serious, and 
should not of themselves detract in any marked degree from 
the pulling power of the engine. Let us suppose, however, 
that each of these little failings reduces the horse-power by 
one-tenth. It will easily be seen that their sum total of re¬ 
duction is enough, and more than enough, to deprive the en¬ 
gine of that vim without feeling which no true automobilist 
is truly happy at the wheel. 

Substitute for a Governor. 

Single-cylinder cars, and, in fact, most of the less expensive 
ones, are somewhat difficult to drive in traffic. The constant 
manipulation of the clutch necessitates frequent acceleration 
or slowing down of the engine. This is generally done by 
keeping the hand on the advance spark lever, so that when the 
clutch is taken out this is moved back to slow the engine down 
on running light. On letting the clutch in again, the spark is 
advanced to enable the engine to give the required power for 
driving. For these operations two hands are necessary—one 
on the steering wheel and one on the sparking lever. If, in 
addition, it is necessary to change speed rapidly, or to use the 
hand brakes, either the steering wheel must be let go alto¬ 
gether or the engine must be allowed to race—that is, if it is 
not fitted with a governor of some kind. This partly applies 
to speed changing. When changing up, the engine has to be 
slowed from the moment the clutch is withdrawn until the 
higher gear and clutch are engaged, when the spark can be 
advanced. If this is not done, the moment the clutch is de¬ 
pressed as a preliminary to gear changing, the engine races 
objectionably. 

A simple way to overcome the difficulty is to connect the 
clutch pedal to the contact breaker, so that when the clutch 
pedal is depressed to withdraw the clutch the sparking is re- 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


49 


tarded, but allowed to return immediately the clutch is re¬ 
engaged. This is done by disconnecting the contact breaker 
from its advance spark lever, and fitting a spring tending to 
advance it to its utmost. A wire or rod is then fitted from 
the contact breaker to the usual control lever, enabling it to 
be set in any position by pulling it back by means of the hand 
lever against the action of the spring. This leaves the con¬ 
tact breaker controllable in exactly the same manner as be¬ 
fore. From the clutch pedal or some part of the clutch con¬ 
nections a wire is led to the contact breaker in such a way 
as to pull it back to its most retarded position when the clutch 
pedal is fully depressed. This can best be done by means of 
wires, though they are somewhat unreliable; if rods are used, 
a sliding connection must be made between the clutch rod and 
hand lever rod to allow the contact breaker to be retarded 
by the clutch rod without necessitating any movement of the 
hand lever. 

Starting Single-cylinder Engines. 

In starting single-cylinder engines, very often trouble is ex¬ 
perienced, this apparently being due to the engine being cold 
or to the carbureter hardly giving a correct mixture. With 
a De Dion type of engine, this trouble is readily got over by 
simply leaving the ignition switch off, and then depressing 
the inlet valve, and at the same time giving about three or 
four brisk turns to the crankshaft. Then when the switch is 
placed in the on position and the crankshaft given a brisk 
jerk so as to bring the piston over the compression point, it 
will be found that starting is quite easy. Of course, the throt¬ 
tle valve must be opened before the inlet valve is depressed. 

How to Get the Best Work Out of a Motor. 

Here are three good fundamental rules for getting the best 
work with the least consumption out of your engine: 

1. Drive with ignition advanced to the utmost short of en¬ 
gine knock. 

2. Admit as much air to the carbureter as possible short of 
getting misfires. 

4 


50 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


This, of course, only obtains with carbureters in which the 
air supply is controllable. 

3. Never let the engine run hot or in want of the proper 
supply of lubricating oil. 

To Start an Engine Easily. 

One often hears of motorists, especially novices, who have 
great difficulty in starting up their engines. They are often 
afraid to stop their engines while leaving the car for a few 
minutes, on account of their difficulties on re-starting. In 
most cases starting is quite easy if care is taken always to close 
the additonal air inlet and open the throttle fully. If neces¬ 
sary, the carbureter should be flooded slightly. This should 
be done not by lifting the needle valve, or by holding down 
the plunger, as in a Eonguemare carbureter, but by lifting and 
depressing it sharply, so as to spray the gasolene from the jet 
right up the inlet pipe. This coats the walls of the pipe with 
gasolene, and a firing mixture is taken into the engine at once, 
no matter how slowly it is turned over. The starting handle 
should always be turned round sharply through the three easy 
strokes, so as to insure sufficient suction to take in a proper 
mixture, and should then be jerked over the compression 
stroke by an upward pull on the handle. With carbureters of 
the Longuemare type, in which the inlet is at right angles to 
the jet, if the carbureter be flooded too much, an excess of 
gasolene collects in the well at the bottom of the jet, and far 
too rich a mixture is obtained for starting. For this reason 
excessive flooding should always be avoided, as it is rarely, 
if ever, successful in getting the engine under way. A good 
tip to facilitate starting is to open the throttle wide and close 
the air inlet just before switching off, so that the cylinders and 
inlet pipe are filled with a rich mixture, ready for the first 
spark on turning the engine over. Some drivers always make 
a point of starting up with the left hand, so that in the event 
of a back-kick the right hand gets off scot free, though there 
is no occasion for anybody receiving a bad back-kick. How¬ 
ever, it is as well to cultivate the habit of starting up with the 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


51 


left hand, so that should the driver experience a sprained 
wrist, he can get along by using the other hand. It will be 
found easier if on putting the car away for the night the 
gasolene cock is turned off before the engine is stopped, and 
the carbureter will then become empty without the trouble of 
drawing the gasolene off. In very cold weather it will be found 
helpful to fill up with warm water, thereby warming the en¬ 
gine, which will then start at the first or second turn. 

To Prevent Being Dazzled. 

It is always advisable to have ready a pair of tinted or 
smoked glasses or goggles, so as to be prepared for driving 
against a low sun. In the early morning, and less frequently 
in the evening, when one is driving facing a low sun, it is 
quite impossible to see. If a pair of smoked glasses are avail¬ 
able, there is no difficulty. Of course, the trouble only occurs 
when one is driving almost directly against the sun, and with¬ 
out tinted glasses it is quite impossible to proceed with safety 
either to oneself or to other road users, at anything above a 
mere crawl. There have been many horse and cycle acci¬ 
dents, some of them fatal, entirely due to the blinding effect 
of a low sun. 

For Stopping Leaks. 

Always carry a piece of bread somewhere on your car, says 
a practical French motorist; rye bread for choice. Rye bread 
is sometimes difficult of acquisition in this country, so a good 
wheat bread may suffice. The bread is not to be stored against 
a prolonged “panne” (i. e., “trouble”), and consequent famine 
in the depth of the wilds, but because under certain circum¬ 
stances the staff of life can be of much avail in directions 
other than that of alimentation. A slight leak in a radiator 
can be most efficiently, although temporarily, staunched by 
means of paste made from bread kneaded with the fingers. 
The paste must be well kneaded, then spread over the leaky 
part, and worked in with some tool which will do duty as a 
spatula, just in the way painters work up their colors on a 
palette. 


52 AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 

Attention to Tire Valve and Bolt Nuts. 

After every run out on a car, the air tube valve nut and 
also all the securing bolt nuts should be carefully gone over 
to feel whether they have worked slack. With the running 
on the road this frequently happens, so that it is a good plan 
to try all of these with a small pair of pliers, as the thumb and 
finger grip on these is not sufficient to tighten them up satis¬ 
factorily. If the bolt nuts are allowed to get slack, there is a 
great tendency to shear the bolts or deform their heads. The 
heads tend also to tip up, and the result is that the inner tube 
gets nipped beneath the head, and in a very short time bursts, 
thus causing serious trouble on the road, but the pliers must 
be used very lightly. 

Skidding or Side-slip. 

Skidding is one of the most dangerous enemies that the auto- 
mobilist has to guard against. There would seem to be no law 
governing side-slip, and at times no amount of skill in driv¬ 
ing will entirely prevent it, though the danger may be modified 
to an extent. Skidding may be divided into two classes: 

1. Due to grip of road surface being insufficient to enable 
driving wheels to propel car. In this case, as the road friction 
is not likely to be the same under each driving wheel, the 
differential enables that wheel having the better hold to do 
more than its share of propelling, with the result that the car 
is slewed round out of its course. This is the form of skid 
which is easiest to correct, for it is only necessary to take the 
clutch out. 

2. Due to either change of direction of car or reduction of 
its speed under conditions when road surface is slimy and 
treacherous. This class of side-slip has huge possibilities and 
can only be avoided by driving slowly or, in fact, as if all 
brakes on the car had been dismantled. Carefully watch the 
way in which the road happens to dish, especially round cor¬ 
ners. Of course with non-skid chains or bands these difficul¬ 
ties mostly vanish, but it must be remembered that a man 
who has never learnt to drive without such devices becomes 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


53 


hopelessly lost if he happens to be driving a car having tires 
with ordinary treads on a slippery road. Apart from bad road 
surface, skidding is promoted by a faulty differential, back 
brakes unequally adjusted, frame or axles being out of align¬ 
ment, or one tire having slightly greater diameter than its 
fellow. 

< ( 

The class of mud on which a motor car slips is exactly the 
same as that which affects a bicycle, and consequently the 
driver who is also a cyclist will be in a better position to judge 
than one who is not. Briefly, if the mud is thick and half dried, 
or if there is a thin film of grease over the paving, or if the 
road surface is composed of a slimy quality of limestone, the 
driver must exercise great caution. Frozen roads are, as a rule, 
safe. A sheet of ice, however, must be traversed cautiously, 
and if the surface has sufficiently thawed to become wet, it 
will be even more treacherous than the worst class of mud. 

The best safeguard against side-slipping is to travel slowly 
at a steady, uniform pace. A sudden, violent application of 
the brakes, a sharp turn of the steering wheel or a sudden ac¬ 
celeration of pace may set up slipping. The driver should 
therefore, try to run his engine at an absolutely uniform 
speed, and should avoid traveling at a pace which would 
necessitate a strong application of the brakes should an ob¬ 
struction suddenly block the road. In fact, when the grease 
is really bad, he should regulate his speed so that the manip¬ 
ulation of the throttle lever will slow the car sufficiently to 
provide for the ordinary exigencies of traffic. 

The action of a car on a greasy or slippery road is often 
deceptive. The driver may find he can maintain a fast pace 
without any sign of side-slip, but he is almost helpless should 
the need arise for a sudden stop. If he puts the brakes on sud¬ 
denly, the car may swing right round. A swerve or an at¬ 
tempt to take a corner quickly will also have the same effect. 

When a side-slip does occur, the driver should declutch the 
engine on the moment. If he has applied his brakes, he should 
let them off again, and should momentarily give the car its 
head, so as to afford the wheels an opportunity of biting, but 


54 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


should then instantly turn the steering wheel in the direction 
necessary to right the car. If the wheel is violently turned in 
the opposite direction to the slip, the car is most likely to con¬ 
tinue slipping, and perhaps will turn completely round. 
Should the latter happen, the driver must let his clutch in 
again, at the very moment that the front of the car points 
directly up or down the road, when the front wheels will prob¬ 
ably again grip. 

There is practically no time to think in the case of a side¬ 
slip. The necessary actioi is instinctive and practically instan¬ 
taneous. If the driver does not declutch at once the car will 
dive into the ditch, and if he does not do the right thing at 
the right moment with the steering wheel the car will turn 
round. He will only gain skill by experience, and the only 
way to avoid accident while gaining the necessary skill is to 
drive very slowly at first, so that if a slip occurs which he is 
unable to control no damage will result. It is a good plan to 
practice side-slipping at a slow pace on a wide, unfrequented 
road. The control will then come very quickly. A really ex¬ 
pert driver is able to actually reverse his direction by a sud¬ 
den twist of the steering wheel, and yet control the slip so that 
the car will “fetch up” when it assumes an end-on position 
in the roadway. 

When descending a steep hill the dangers resulting from 
side-slip are intensified, for the brakes cannot be safely used 
to any extent, and the car may continue sliding broadside on, 
or slowly revolving owing to the slope of the hill. On an ex¬ 
ceptionally slippery hill, as, for example, when the surface is 
coated with wet ice, a safe descent may often be effected by 
driving with the wheels at one side in the gutter. This gives 
the wheels a bite, and tends to prevent the car swinging broad¬ 
side on. Also if a slip does occur the proximity of the curb, 
be it of earth or stone, prevents serious results should the car 
strike sideways and come to an immediate stop. 

It may, perhaps, seem that driving on a greasy road is ex¬ 
ceedingly dangerous. To the experienced driver, however, it 
is not so. He quickly learns the speed at which he can travel 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


55 


with safety, and the amount to which the brakes can be ap¬ 
plied without causing side-slip. Should the car swing round, 
it will not sustain any damage unless it strikes some obstruc¬ 
tion or glides into a ditch. 

There are many non-skid devices on the market of more or 
less efficiency, by the use of which the risk is reduced to a 
minimum. 

THE ART OF DRIVING. 

Having dealt with the manipulation of the clutch and the 
various control levers so as to get the best results out of the 
car, we shall now give some hints on how to become a safe 
and expert driver. The beginner too often falls into the mis¬ 
take of thinking that to drive a car well is a very simple matter, 
and before he has found out his mistake he may have caused 
injury through faulty manipulation, and perhaps have met 
with a more or less serious accident. He should take as his 
motto, “Festina lente” (Hasten slowly), and should not con¬ 
clude that because he can steer straight on a clear road, it 
is therefore safe to travel fast. Nothing but experience will 
teach him to act instinctively in an emergency, and until he 
can so act he is in constant and imminent danger if he attempts 
to drive fast. He must bear in mind also, that a motor car 
requires almost as much sympathy as a horse if the best re¬ 
sults are to be attained. 

His initial practice should be done at a very slow speed, 
not more than from io to 15 miles an hour. He should learn 
how to slow, to stop, to reverse and to turn, and 1 should 
practice these various operations until he is perfect. As re¬ 
gards steering, he should not be satisfied until he is able to 
follow a true course, and if, on descending a steep hill for ex¬ 
ample, the steering should show a tendency to get out of con¬ 
trol and the car to sway, he should not lose his head and jam 
on his brakes, but should check the car gradually by means of 
the throttle until he has coaxed it into the way of rectitude 
once more. Even with drivers who have had some little ex¬ 
perience, this danger of a swing from side to side being set 
up is one that has to be reckoned with, 


56 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


To slow down gradually, use the throttle; to stop altogether, 
check the pace by the same means, but when the car has 
dropped to a speed of a few miles an hour, declutch and apply 
the hand-brake. To stop in an emergency, declutch and apply 
both brakes, but only to an extent that is absolutely necessary. 

Ascending Hills. 

When approaching a hill, it is often well to rush it, if the 
coast is clear. For this purpose advance the ignition, open the 
throttle, and temporarily race the engine. The momentum will 
carry the car up a considerable way. As the engine slows, 
gradually retard the ignition, and the moment the engine shows 
any signs of laboring, change on to the next speed. As the 
engine picks up under the lighter load, the ignition can be 
slightly advanced again, so as to get the best results out of it. 
It is a bad practice to frequently slip the clutch in order to 
struggle over the crest of the hill without changing. When 
climbing on the low speed it is a mistake to race the engine— 
taking it for granted that the gradient is well within the car’s 
powers. Racing is very severe on the engine under such cir¬ 
cumstances, and will cause overheating. 

Descending Hills. 

In descending hills, both judgment and experience are nec¬ 
essary. If the grade is gentle and the road straight, free from 
traffic, and without side roads, a fast pace may be maintained. 
Under no circumstances, however, should a steep hill be de¬ 
scended fast if there are blind turns or if there is much traffic 
about. On dangerously steep down-grades it is essential to 
safety to begin the descent slowly. At a fast speed the mo¬ 
mentum is enormous, and once the car has got out of control 
the brakes cannot be relied upon to hold it. Most of the 
serious accidents recorded have been due to drivers tackling 
a dangerous hill at too fast a pace and losing control. If the 
driver, through want of caution, finds himself traveling too 
fast on a dangerous descent, he should act promptly but with 
discretion. To jam the brakes on to their fullest may only 
cause one or both to collapse. Taking it for granted that he 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


57 


is running against compression (with the ignition switched 
off), he should apply both brakes with gradually increasing 
pressure until the speed is checked, and should descend the 
rest of the hill at a slow speed, relying upon compression and 
one of the brakes, using these alternately, so that they will 
not overheat, and keeping the other in reserve. If one brake 
is connected to the clutch, of course he can only use the other 
in combination with the engine. At a high speed the engine 
compression loses a large proportion of its effectiveness, and 
it may then become necessary for him to apply the second 
brake, thus declutching. The operation should be done 
quickly, but with judgment. On a long hill, which is steep, 
but not necessarily dangerous, it is very unwise to descend 
at a high speed with the brakes on. The heat generated 
under such circumstances is enormous, and the brakes at 
any moment may become ineffective, or even collapse, when, 
with the high momentum obtained, it would be impossible to 
stop the car. On long, gentle hills it is advisable to switch 
off, as this gives the engine a chance of cooling. Very few 
throttles are absolutely gastight. 

When surmounting an exceptionally steep incline, on, say, 
the low speed, it is well to keep in view the possibility of a 
shaft breaking or a chain coming off, when probably the only 
available brakes, namely those on the back wheels, might not 
prove strong enough if the car commenced to run backward. 
A good plan is to hug the near side of the road (if not a preci¬ 
pice) so that if such an accident occurred the car should be 
quickly backed into the curb, fence or gutter. If the road is 
wide, however, hug the most dangerous side, and then, in case 
of a stoppage from the above causes, swing right across the 
road backward. The car will probably come to a standstill 
before touching the curb or fence. 

Driving in Public Streets. 

Exhibition driving in the public streets is at least bad style. 
It should be remembered that there are many people who are 
unable to judge how quickly your car can stop, and though 


58 


A UTOMOBILE DRIVING 


it may be distinctly humorous to see an elderly person dancing 
a fandango in front of a car which has some time previously 
come to rest, there is no doubt that much needless irritation 
and dislike for automobiles in general may be thus caused. 

If, in traffic driving, a doubt arises as to who should give 
way, be sure to do so yourself. Doubts of this nature grad¬ 
ually become fewer as a driver’s experience and judgment in¬ 
crease. 

On Turning Corners. 

The art of taking corners without endangering oneself and 
other road users is worth cultivating. The motorist should 
make an invariable habit of keeping to his own side of the 
road at these corners, even though, as when turning to the left, 
the act of swinging wide will bring him off the crown of the 
road and necessitate a slower pace. When turning to the 
right, he should not take the corner at such a speed as will 
make him swing wide, for if other traffic is advancing to meet 
him, an accident is very likely to occur. The slower the corner 
is taken, the less will be the strain on his differential gear and 
tires. For this reason also it is very advisable to declutch as 
the car begins to turn, and not let the clutch into engagement 
again until the corner has been almost negotiated. Another 
important point should be borne in mind, and that is, that 
the severe application of the brakes when in the act of turning 
a corner tends to upset the car, and, if for this reason alone, 
the corner should not be taken fast. 

Passing Side Roads. 

Side roads constitute a very serious danger, especially if 
the fences are so high as to obscure the view. If the auto- 
mobilist is on the main road he should sound his horn and 
slow down on approaching the side road. His safest position 
under such circumstances is in the middle of the road, as it 
gives him more scope for maneuvering should anything 
emerge from a side road. At the same time, should an acci¬ 
dent occur, his position in the middle of the road might be 
regarded as contributory negligence. 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


59 


If the automobilist is emerging from a side road into a main 
road he should bear in mind that the traffic on the main road 
has, so to speak, the right of way, and is justified in proceed¬ 
ing at a much faster pace than the traffic emerging from the 
side road; in fact, the onus, to a great extent, devolves on 
him to drive so as to cause the least possible risk of collision. 
If he is about to turn to the right there is little risk, because 
the traffic advancing to meet him will be either in the middle 
of the road or to its own right side, and, consequently, will 
leave him ample room. If, however, he is turning to the left, 
great caution should be observed, because, in this case, he will 
have to intercept the line of approaching traffic before he can 
get on to his proper side of the road. He should, consequently, 
slow down to a crawl and should hug the right side of the 
byroad until he is in the act of emerging on to the main road, 
when he should gradually curve to the left, keeping a careful 
lookout for approaching traffic. 

If on so emerging he observes, for the first time, an auto¬ 
mobile or other vehicle in very close proximity, his action 
must depend on circumstances, but should be absolutely in¬ 
stantaneous, and as such rapid decision can only be acquired 
by experience, the beginner cannot exercise too great caution. 
If there is time, of course, he should rush across to his own 
side of the road, letting the approaching vehicle pass behind 
him. 

It may happen, however, that the driver of the approaching 
vehicle by an error of judgment swings over to his wrong side 
of the road in order to get in front of the emerging car. In 
such a case, the driver of the emerging car may turn sharp to 
the right into the center of the roadway and face in the same 
direction as the car on the main road, thus leaving it room to 
pass on either side of him. Of course, if the car emerges from 
the side road at such a very slow pace that it can be brought 
to a stop within three or four feet, and if a wide turn has been 
taken in the first instance, the best course would be to jam 
the brakes hard on. 

If an accident does occur under any circumstances, whether 


60 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


it is the fault of the automobilist or not, the driver should 
always pull up and give every assistance in his power. It 
would also be advisable for him at once to take the names 
and addresses of any witnesses, and interview them as to their 
view of the causes which led to the accident, taking careful 
note as to what they say. Should proceedings result, this evi¬ 
dence would prove invaluable. 

Courtesy on the Road. 

As regards road users other than automobilists, no considera¬ 
tion can be too great if automobile owners desire to earn the 
good will and favor of the general public. If a horse is restive, 
the autoist should pull up at once, and if necessary stop the 
engine. Should a horse, however, suddenly and unexpectedly 
begin to back across the road, and the driver is uncertain 
whether he can stop his car in time to prevent a collision, it 
is generally best to go for the opening and try to dash through 
before the way is blocked. There should be no hesitation, 
however. The automobilist should either jam his brakes on 
or accelerate. Cyclists should be given a wide berth, espe¬ 
cially when the road surface is in a greasy condition, and the 
practice of keeping on the crown of the road, regardless of 
other people’s convenience, should be avoided. In process of 
time all other road users will become accustomed to motor 
car traffic, and it will then be possible to drive far faster in 
safety and without causing inconvenience than it is in many 
places to-day. 

Consideration for Tires. 

The reliability and durability of tires depend mainly on 
the way in which the car is driven. Excessive wear is caused 
by letting in the clutch suddenly, by stopping abruptly, by 
taking corners fast, and by neglecting to steer clear of broken 
stones where possible. It is also advisable when patches of 
broken stones cannot be avoided to declutch momentarily 
while the hind wheels are passing over the patch. 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


61 


SELF-TUITION IN DRIVING. 

The following hints and tips constitute another effort to 
convey to the mind of the reader how he may teach himself 
to drive his own car, presuming that the vehicle is delivered 
to him at such time and place as make it impossible for him 
to obtain tuition at the hands of an expert familiar with the 
special make of car he has purchased. Such preliminary in¬ 
struction is always to be recommended, but the consideration 
of time, cost and locality may render it out of the question. 
Let us presume the new car to be a light one of some 1,200 
to 1,600 lbs., driven by a one or two-cylindered engine, 
through friction clutch, change speed gear, propeller-shaft and 
bevel gearing on differential gear of live axle. The power of 
the motor may be anything up to, say, 10 horsepower. We 
will also presume that the car has been delivered, and stands 
in the garage its owner has secured for it. 

The Initial Trip. 

For the first attempt, choose the most solitary stretch of 
road you know of. The novice does not require any sort of 
audience when learning to drive. We take it for granted that 
our novice is not ignorant of the dispositions of the car he 
has bought, that he has perused as much literature dealing 
directly with his purchase as he could conveniently come at, 
and that he knows, for instance, the difference between the 
water and gasolene tanks. This is knowledge he must pos¬ 
sess, for no good purpose can be served by charging the wrong 
tank with the wrong fluid. This sounds particularly elemen¬ 
tary, but the mistake has been made more than once, with 
decidedly exasperating results. Also, we take it that our 
novice has informed himself of the use and direction of move¬ 
ment of the controlling levers—that is to say, the direction 
in which to move the sparking lever in order to advance or 
retard the spark, the proper actuation of the accelerator lever, 
to let in or cut out the governor (if such be fitted), and of the 
air lever (if the supply is so controllable). We must also 
presume equal knowledge of the use of the gear changing and 


62 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


braking levers, and the clutch withdrawing and braking pedals. 
The car, of course, has been delivered with the electric wires 
all properly coupled up and the batteries charged. Here let 
us interpolate a little advice before proceeding further. Get 
these batteries recharged at the earliest opportunity. The 
first charge put into an accumulator does not last long, and 
the battery must not be expected to be on, its best behavior 
until it has been recharged twice or thrice. 

Charging Tanks. 

Before the car is moved out of its garage the water tank 
should be filled with rainwater, if that is obtainable; if not, 
with the softest water than may be at hand. It is well to pour 
the water into the tank through a funnel fitted with a rather 
coarse strainer, as foreign bodies accidentally introduced into 
the water-cooling system cannot be withdrawn easily, and 
may do mischief. If your water system is provided with a 
drain-cock, open it before beginning to pour, and pour in for 
a little while it is running. This will prevent air-locks in 
the water system. Turn off the drain-cock—which, by the 
way, if present, should be found at the lowest point of the 
water system, when the jet has run solid—without splutter¬ 
ing or bubbling, and continue your filling until the level of 
the waste pipe from tank is reached, and the water trickles 
therefrom. Screw on cap of water tank. Now fill the gaso¬ 
lene tank. Among the accessories which should be supplied 
with the car will be found a funnel fitted with a gauze strainer. 
This must always be used when replenishing the gasolene 
tank, for dirt or other foreign matter introduced thereto will 
sooner or later give serious trouble, either by choking the 
gasolene supply pipe itself or choking up the spraying jet in 
the carbureter. It must be presumed that the lubricating 
tank is full, that grease boxes have been filled, and crank 
chamber, gear-box and differential gear case are properly 
supplied with the requisite quantities of oil. These are points 
which are often forgotten. 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


63 


Starting the Engine. 

Push your car out of its garage by hand, and then prepare 
to start your engine. Now, it is well to commence to per¬ 
form the movements of levers, etc., necessary to this opera¬ 
tion as they should in future be done, and, although this 
sequence of acts must vary in different makes of cars, we 
give them here as they are usually performed on a typical 
io-horsepower car. The first thing to do—and be certain that 
you do it—is to make sure that your gear lever is in the free 
gear notch; to put on your side brakes, thus pulling out your 
clutch; to retard the spark almost to the lowest limit; and to 
get into the habit of doing these three things with certainty 
before you do anything else. Operation number 2. Move 
accelerator, or mixture lever, to the point which will give 
the easiest starting. In a typical car the accelerator lever is 
moved to a position about one-fourth down the rack segment, 
but with extra air admission most engines start with all or 
nearly all the air shut off at first. Operation 3. Open gaso¬ 
lene cock in gasolene supply pipe, allowing gasolene to flow 
to carbureter. If lever control to air supply is fitted, place 
that lever in best position for starting. Also, if your engine 
has been standing some time and is cold, it is well to turn the 
starting handle two or three revolutions, which will expel all 
common atmosphere from the tubes, combustion chambers 
and valve boxes. Operation 4. Switch on current and turn 
on cylinder lubricators. Operation 5. Press the stud in the 
top of float feed chamber of carbureter, so as more or less 
to flood your carbureter with gasolene. Operation 6. Press 
starting handle in until it engages properly with the engine- 
shaft, and turn round slowly until you begin to feel the com¬ 
pression. The handle should always be turned against the 
compression by a pull towards the starter—never the reverse— 
as then, should the engine back fire, the handle will only be 
torn from the grasp and no harm be done. On the other hand, 
if the compression is pushed against, and a back fire takes 
place, the starter is sure to receive a nasty jar, if nothing 


64 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


more serious. So pull against your compression smartly and 
sharply, and the engine should start. 

Ascertaining the Correct Mixture. 

The next duty is to take steps to see that the engine is 
running to the best advantage. We must presume the reader 
knows which way to move the ignition lever to advance or 
retard the spark, and the necessary movement of the air lever 
to give more or less air; also how to actuate the accelerator 
lever or pedal, if you have got either or both. Advance the 
ignition until the engine begins to race. Then play a bit with 
the air lever, if you have one, or the ring cap opening and 
closing air ports to the carbureter, until your ear tells you. 
that the engine is getting the mixture it likes best. If your 
ear does not inform you of this at once, you will very soon 
discover its proper note, which signifies that the engine is 
quite satisfied with the quality of the mixture you are feeding 
to it. 

In the Driver’s Seat. 

If your circulating pump is friction-driven off the flywheel, 
as many pumps are, look at it and see that it is running prop¬ 
erly. Assuming you have no pressure gauge, press any rubber 
connection in the water-circulating system between pump and 
cylinders to test by the pulsations there whether your pump 
is delivering properly or not. Now have a look at your cylin¬ 
der lubricators, and see if they are feeding properly. The 
maker’s catalogue should tell you how many drops a minute 
should be served; few catalogues do, but all should. With 
the car upon which these necessarily voluminous instructions 
are based, each drip should feed not less than five to seven 
drops per minute. It is usually easier to take your seat from 
the left than to squeeze in past the levers. Now sit down 
well and squarely before the wheel. Before you touch your 
side brakes lever, put your left foot on the clutch pedal, and 
depress it. 

Manipulating the Control. 

Now the clutch is withdrawn from driving contact with the 
flywheel, and cannot return thereto until you raise your foot. 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


65 


So keep the pedal pressed down and take your side brakes 
off. See that the lever is right back. Now move the gear 
striking lever forward, so that the V-piece, or the trigger, 
whichever it may be fitted with, slips into the first speed 
slot or groove made to take it on the sector. Should the 
engine slow audibly, and grunt and snort more or less when 
moving the car away on the first speed, it is not running 
fast enough, and must be accelerated. Just how much you 
will soon find out. Now raise your foot gently—very gently—• 
and easily until the car begins to draw away. An automobile 
should move away from rest just as the expert engine driver 
loves to take his flier away from a depot platform—that is, 
so that his passengers shall not be able to say when the train 
first moved. Keep your own side of the road, but not too 
close in. Now feel the steering, swing the car slightly from 
side to side, and learn how much lock a proportionate move¬ 
ment of the steering wheel controls. 

Changing Gear. 

Take a few corners on first speed. They will teach you 
just how much it is necessary to move your wheel to nego¬ 
tiate them. 

Now to try a change of speed: With a governed engine, it 

is not necessary to touch the ignition or throttle or accelerator 

levers. Seize the handle portion of the gear-striking lever, 

and squeeze in the trigger lifter, if the lever is so fitted. Now 

press the pedal clutch right down to withdraw the clutch, and 

take the driving force off the car. With clutch so held out, 

move your gear lever forward until the trigger is past the 

first speed notch. Now release the trigger lifter, which you 

have hitherto been holding close to the handle of the gear 

lever, and let the trigger drop on to the smooth surface of 

the sector. Now slide the lever forward until you feel the 

trigger drop into the second speed notch, release lever, and 

raise your clutch pedal so as to let the clutch in gently. If 

a jarring noise is heard, it means that, instead of letting your 

trigger fall into the second speed notch before you let in your 
'5 


66 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


clutch, you slightly reversed the operation, with the result 
that the teeth of the driven toothed wheel of the second gear 
were trying to dodge into the spaces between the teeth of 
the driving toothed wheel when the latter was going the 
faster, and spoiling their nicely tooled entering edges in the 
attempt. Try changing again several times until the gears 
can be engaged without a lot of noise. 

On the Top Speed. 

Now you are on your second speed, and you had better 
keep on it awhile. Try some more corners, and get accustomed 
to the control of the car on the second speed. Press down 
the clutch pedal gently from time to time in order to realize 
just how much declutching will slow the car; but be careful 
to let it in gently as before. Do not let the car slow down 
too much, as picking up again on the second speed is not 
good for the gear. Press down your brake pedal from time 
to time, and learn how much stopping power it provides. 
When you feel quite comfortable on second speed, and realize 
that you have control of the car, change on to third, but select 
a fairly good length of straight road to run on this gear. The 
change is effected exactly as above described; that is, press 
down clutch pedal, move your lever forward into the next 
notch, and when it is there, let your pedal come up gently. 

In practising changing speed, it is well to select a stretch of 
down grade, not a hill, but just a very slight slope, as then the 
car will run on, and you may be more deliberate about your 
pedal and lever movements. Unclutch frequently as before, 
and use the pedal brake gently to acquire a knowledge of the 
effect on third speed. Practise this well, for by judicious use 
of the clutch and gentle applications of the foot brake, it is 
frequently possible to slow up just enough to get through 
traffic without changing down. There is one further instruc¬ 
tion to be remembered, and that is, when you have changed 
on to your third or top speed, you should retard or throttle 
down the engine speed, for it is not wise for the novice to 
drive at the height of his top speed right off the reel. You 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


67 


can accelerate the car gradually as you gain more confidence. 
The right thing to do is never to go fast till you perform 
every act of control automatically. 

Attacking a Hill. 

We must presume now that you have driven about on level 
roads until you can steer fairly well. The next thing to ac¬ 
quire is the knack of changing speed uphill in conformity with 
the gradient attacked. This, indeed, can hardly be called a 
knack—it is almost an instinct. First, wherever possible, it 
is well to put your car at a hill at its best gait on its top speed. 
It will rush up well at first, but gradually you will feel it 
slackening. You have your throttle wide open or your accel¬ 
erator down already, and the only thing to be done in case 
the car will complete the climb on its top is to back down 
the ignition. Mind and do this, or the engine will knock—■ 
indeed, too early firing with the engine running slow has been 
known to break crankshafts. So back down as the car slows. 

Presently it becomes apparent that it is not going over the 
hill on its top and the throb of the engine becomes accentu¬ 
ated. This is the moment—or, indeed, rather before, but you 
will learn it as you go—the psychological moment, to change 
down on to your second speed. Changing down is not so 
easy as changing up, and requires more practice. When 
properly done, grinding or groaning should in no way be in 
evidence, and there should be no forward or backward jerk 
of the car. It should glide on as though nothing had hap¬ 
pened, and you alone in the car should be conscious that any 
change had been made. But, as we say, it is an instinct that 
comes by practice—sooner with some, later with more, and 
never with a few. 


Withdrawing the Clutch. 

There is one point, however, in changing down which may 
probably be observed. It is not necessary to withdraw the 
clutch wholly—indeed, some well-known drivers say that, if 
the change is effected at the proper moment, there is no need 


68 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


to withdraw the clutch at all; but we do not advise the novice 
to try. The clutch should be withdrawn sufficiently to admit 
of it slipping, just how much varies with every car, and the 
knowledge thereof will only come with practice. Do not 
delay until the last moment for changing down to a lower 
gear, but drive upon that gear upon which you are running 
to the best possible advantage. Keep the engine running at 
its normal speed as long as possible by the manipulation of 
the throttle and sparking advance lever. When the speed 
of the engine begins to drop slightly change at once. 

Gentle Handling. 

In getting over the top of a hill, do not be in too great a 
hurry to change up again. The man who bangs in his second 
or his third before the engine is ready to take the car up 
shortens the life of his vehicle, besides laying up a store of 
trouble for himself. The true automobilist will come to feel 
for his car, and to learn just exactly what it likes and how 
it likes it. If you breast the brow of the hill on your first, 
wait until you hear your engine race before you change on 
to your second, and then wait again similarly before you slip 
in third. In pulling up, use your brakes gently. There are 
times, of course, when the brakes must be used for a sudden 
stop; but for all ordinary slacks, the throttle should be closed 
or the clutch pedal should be depressed and the car allowed 
to slow down naturally and easily. 

Coasting Slopes. 

Given average intelligence, the novice will find that a couple 
of hours’ practice will be sufficient to permit him to manage 
his machine upon the open roads with safety to other people. 
Whenever the car will coast, at a reasonable speed without 
the engine driving, the driver will find that this is the safest, 
quietest, and most economical way of descending slopes. With 
the to horse-power machine, upon which these driving hints 
have been formed particularly, it has only been found neces¬ 
sary to press down the clutch pedal and withdraw clutch from 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


69 


% 


contact with the flywheel, letting the clutch in gently as the 
bottom of the slope is approached, so that the engine might 
take up the drive. 

Picking up the Drive. 

Just which speed should be attained before the clutch is 
let in will depend precisely upon what grade is next to be 
attacked; but if the descent continues gently or is followed by 
a level stretch, then the third or top speed should be engaged. 
The car gaining some momentum from the descent, the engine 
will be found to pick the drive up very nicely. If, however, 
the drop down is followed almost immediately by a rise, then 
the clutch should be let in and the gear engaged earlier, in 
order that a good rush may be made at the opposite slope. 
When you have learnt your car a bit, and feel fairly sure of 
yourself, it is well to accelerate the engine more or less for 
this sprint. 

Throttling Down the Free Engine. 

In descending hills with the engine free, it should be throt¬ 
tled right down, so as to cause it to run as slowly as possible, 
the ignition being well backed at the same time. Before strik¬ 
ing a gear and letting in the clutch, the driver must not omit 
to open his throttle, advance spark, and get the engine running 
at a speed sufficient to take up the drive as soon as the clutch 
is let in. When a switch is placed ready to hand, the current 
may be cut off altogether, so that the engine stops, if the 
character and length of the descent will warrant this, so that 
when the moment comes for taking up the drive, the clutch 
let in, the current switched on, and throttle opened, the mo¬ 
mentum of the car will restart the engine. The precise speed 
and grade on which one’s engine can be started in this way 
is only to be known by practice, so that when our novice has 
acquired some skill and confidence he should essay to seek 
the same. 

Driving on the Reverse. 

Driving backward must be essayed carefully, and thought 
must be taken to press the clutch well out before moving the 


70 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


gear-striking lever from the free to the reversing notch on the 
quadrant. It, of course, will be recognized that we are dis¬ 
cussing a car on which all the speed-changing is performed by 
the movement of one lever. When an auxiliary lever has to 
be actuated to strike the reversing gear, then care must be 
taken to leave the forward striking gear lever in the free notch 
on the quadrant before the reversing lever is touched. With 
the clutch pedal pressed well down, move the lever to the re¬ 
verse notch, and, keeping your foot firmly upon the pedal, turn 
partially round to the right in your seat, so that you can look 
square out of the back of your car over the center or side. 
In this wise, you will find it much easier to handle and steer 
your vehicle to a nicety when running astern than if you 
merely turn your head and look over your shoulder. Now 
let your clutch in gently, and as the car begins to go astern 
ascertain just the amount of helm it is necessary to give it for 
any desired movement. As your body is turned to the right, 
you have only your left hand for the wheel, but this will not 
be found difficult after a few trials. 

The novice is strongly advised to select a wide and deserted 
stretch of road, and to practise reversing and steering back¬ 
ward until he has fairly got the hang of the effect of his lock 
when going backward. When you have traveled back to the 
desired position, do not fail to declutch, and if you are going 
to stop move your gear lever to the free notch, or take your 
reversing gear out with your reversing lever if your car is 
so fitted. 

Entering the Garage. 

Driving in and out of the garage or barn may give the 
novice some concern, and in this connection we would urge 
strongly that neither in coming out nor going in to such 
shelter should the beginner proceed on any other but his first 
speed. It is because cars have so frequently to be backed 
out of their shelters that we have already urged the novice 
to practise steering backward. Whether he will go into his 
garage backward and thus leave his vehicle in position to 
come straight out, or the reverse, must depend altogether upon 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


71 


circumstances; but if there should be a drop into the stable 
of sufficient gradient to allow the car to run down by its own 
weight, we should advise him to drop in gently backward, 
with clutch out and foot on brake pedal, for it is less trouble¬ 
some so to steer the car than to drive out backward up a slope. 

After the Drive. 

Now, when the drive is over and the car is to be put away, 
the man who wishes to keep all things in order and ready for 
an immediate start will devote a little time to replenishing 
with lubricating oil and kerosene. As soon as the engine is 
stopped, and the car is housed, lift the motor bonnet, and with 
your kerosene oilcan give the pistons two or three good squirts 
of kerosene through the cocks in the combustion chambers 
provided for the purpose. If your engine is innocent of these 
fittings, unscrew your sparking plugs and dose through the 
ports. Some people will tell you to use gasolene, but most 
prefer good kerosene. The effect of gasolene in loosening the 
piston rings vanishes in a very short time, and if your car 
remains unused for a day or two, the engine will not turn so 
easily when you come to start it up. Before turning off your 
compression cocks, or replacing your sparking plugs, turn the 
engine round several times by hand. This will cause the kero¬ 
sene to cleanse the cylinder walls and rings. Fill up lubri¬ 
cators if they require it, and charge gasolene and water tanks, 
being careful afterward to screw down cap and vent screw on 
the former tightly. 

Do not leave your switch on. If you do, you may find your 
battery run down when you next desire to drive. 

If you have time at your disposal, it is well to make a careful 
survey of your car, and to see that no nuts have worked loose 
and that no bearing has run hot. Further, if you have any 
respect for your paint and upholstery, get a covering sheet 
of canvas and cover up your automobile before leaving it. 
Keep it covered always when standing in the garage. 

Negotiating Road Risks. 

When driving, always bear in mind that in the common 


72 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


state of judicial and public opinion no excuse of any sort will 
serve you if you are damaged or cause damage by passing on 
your wrong side. To do so when a lumbering dray occupies 
the crown of the highway and your proper section of the road 
is blocked while there is ample room elsewhere is at times a 
great temptation, and we do not say that it may not occasion¬ 
ally be taken advantage of. But always bear in mind that the 
risk of vehicles closing in, of children of younger and of older 
growth darting out in front of you, is yours and yours alone. 
If you are one jot or tittle in the wrong, no matter how selfish 
or stupid those whose property or persons you may injure, 
you will have little or no consideration when called upon to 
pay the piper. 

When overtaking traffic and finding by the time you arrive 
abreast of the vehicle you intend to pass that another coming 
in the opposite direction will be there before you, you should 
so speed your car that when the road is clear you will be able 
to go ahead without changing speed or using your brakes. If, 
however, you are on your top speed and your car has slowed 
down so that your engine is thumping, change down before 
you attempt to pass the vehicle in front. 

Do your best to accommodate your speed to the traffic you 
are negotiating, so as to change speed and use your brakes 
as seldom as possible. By attention to this you will soon find 
your eye becoming educated to distances and speeds and you 
will be astonished to find how nicely these can be timed to 
drive with the least possible trouble. 

ANOTHER LESSON IN DRIVING. 

The methods that are recommended for learning to drive 
a motor car are almost as numerous as the makes of success¬ 
ful automobiles, and, in order that all the important points 
may be touched upon and nothing overlooked, still another set 
of instructions for new owners and drivers, from the stand¬ 
point of an automobilist of experience and authority, is ap¬ 
pended : 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 73 

Learning the Steering and Control. 

A new owner will do well in the first place to study the 
construction and working of his car, as far as possible, while 
it is stationary. As part of this course, he should spend some 
time in the driver’s seat, and accustom himself to the positions 
of the steering wheel and the various levers. Then he may 
venture out on the road in the company of an experienced 
driver, and by first resting his right hand lightly on the steer¬ 
ing wheel, learn the effect of the different movements of the 
wheel on the course taken bv the car. Gradually he will be 
able to take charge of the steering entirely from the left-hand 
seat, and then, occupying the driver’s seat, may learn to steer 
the car on its first speed. 

We will now suppose that you are able to steer the car, and 
have a general acquaintance with its various features, but 
otherwise are very much left to your own resources. Natur¬ 
ally, you are anxious to go for a drive ; and here we may give 
a hint as to the route to be pursued on this occasion. Let it 
be a circular tour of short radius, and with home as center. 
In this way the risk of an expensive return in case of a break¬ 
down is greatly reduced, and you will have the advantage, in 
all probability, of being well acquainted with the whole of the 
road traversed. 

Preliminary Attentions. 

P>efore starting out, the various nuts and bolts should be 
looked over, especially on a new car, and the brakes and steer¬ 
ing gear connections should receive particular attention. The 
quantitv of gasolene in the tank should be ascertained. If no 
gauge glass is fitted, a celluloid or glass tube may be inserted, 
a finger placed on the top, and the tube lifted out. The height 
of the gasolene in the tube will indicate the quantity in the 
tank. Or a clean white stick or paper spill will serve as a 
guide by discoloring the portion moistened. If more gasolene 
is required, it should be poured in through a funnel having a 
fine wire gauze strainer. This strainer should be supple¬ 
mented by a piece of fine white cambric, as this, when satu- 


74 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


rated with gasolene, resists the passage of any water that may 
happen to be in the can. Any water collecting in the cambric 
should be thrown away. See that the spout of the funnel is 
clean outside and in. A little gasolene or kerosene should be 
injected into each cylinder to free the piston rings and (in the 
case of the gasolene) to facilitate the obtaining of the first 
explosion. The lubricators should be turned on, and the caps 
of the grease cup given a turn—in fact, the car should be 
lubricated throughout. 

After having seen that the gear lever is in the out-of-gear 
position, the carbureter should receive attention. It may be 
emptied of any stale gasolene it may contain. The mixture 
regulator may be set to cut down the quantity of air; and, the 
gasolene cock having been turned on, the float may be agitated 
so as to flood the carbureter. The throttle valve should be 
opened. The electric current should be switched on; and be 
careful to see that the timing lever is set well back. The next 
thing to do is to release the compression, if means for so doing 
are provided, but this is only usually necessary with large 
engines. 

Starting the Engine. 

The starting handle should be turned round clockwise (in 
most cars) until the resistance of the compression is felt. If 
this occurs as the handle is going downward, turn the handle 
back half a turn or so, and then try again until the compres¬ 
sion is felt as the handle is beginning to come upward. The 
handle should be held with the fingers of the right hand under 
it, and the thumb not over it. When the compression is felt, 
give a strong and continuing pull upward, when, if all is in 
order, the motor will start. If the ignition were too far ad¬ 
vanced, the explosion would drive the handle backward; and 
if you were pushing the handle down at the time, the chances 
are your wrist would be broken or so severely sprained as to 
be useless for some time to come. But if you are pulling up, 
the back fire simply unbends the fingers; and though you may 
be a bit scared, you are not likely to be hurt. 

If the motor will not start after a few attempts, the ignition 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


75 


may be slightly advanced, and different mixtures may be tried 
for the gas. If this will not do, try further injections of gaso¬ 
lene into the cylinders. Test the ignition to see that it is 
sparking properly. Sometimes it will be found that the valves 
having become dirty do not move freely; and if they remain 
open when they ought to close, the engine cannot work. 

As soon as the engine starts, the ignition may be advanced 
somewhat, and the throttle partly closed. Your passengers 
having got aboard, you are ready to start. Hold the clutch 
out by the foot, and move the change gear lever into the first 
speed notch. If it will not enter easily, allow the clutch to 
engage slightly for a moment, and then try to get in gear 
again. As soon as 'the gear is engaged, the clutch should be 
let in very gradually, the throttle being opened to provide 
plenty of power. As the clutch engages, the car will move off, 
and the run will be begun. In starting, changing speed, etc., 
the finger catch (if any) must be grasped with the handle of 
the lever, but the catch should be released when it is clear of 
its notch, so that it may be ready to drop into the fresh notch 
as soon as the lever brings it opposite thereto. 

.Sometimes when the motor will not consent to start in the 
ordinary way, it may be prevailed upon to do its duty by 
letting in the first speed and clutch, and pushing the car. Of 
course, the driver must be in position so that he can steer the 
car and control it directly the motor begins to function. 

Changing Speed. 

After the car has got into its stride on its first speed, the 
gear may be raised to the next speed. To effect this, the spark¬ 
ing should be advanced so as to hustle up the motor, the 
clutch taken well out, and the gear lever moved, with as much 
decision and promptitude as possible, into the next higher 
notch. The clutch is let in again quickly, but gradually, and 
the whole operation should be performed with address, so that 
the speed of the car may not be sensibly diminished during 
the operation. Never put in a higher gear until you have be¬ 
come perfectly acquainted with the next lower one. It is very 


76 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


tempting to see how fast the car can go, or how fast you dare 
let it go, but the temptation should be sternly resisted during 
your novitiate, otherwise you may never become an expert. 
After the car has fairly started, the mixture may be varied 
slightly until the best adjustment has been obtained; it should 
then be set with a little more air. The throttle, too, should be 
opened only so far as will allow of the car being driven at the 
desired speed with the ignition Avell advanced. 

On reaching a hill, the speed of the car should be kept up 
at first by opening the throttle further and further as required. 
When the limit of this adjustment has been reached, the igni¬ 
tion should be gradually retarded, especially if the engine sets 
up a knocking noise. Some drivers are very skilful at coaxing 
cars uphill without lowering the gear, but this practice is not 
to be commended. If the engine begins to labor or the speed 
of the car has fallen to that of the next lower gear, that gear 
should be brought into operation. The motor should not be 
allowed to run too fast during the change; and the change 
should be effected quickly, as the speed of the car will fall 
very rapidly while the motive power is cut off*. The directions 
for changing speed are soon given, but the amount of success 
with which the driver carries them out depends upon practice 
and skill. 

Coasting, Braking, and Reversing. 

Down grades will call for different treatment of the engine, 
according to their steepness and length. If the hill is only a 
short one, the engine may be left running at a slow speed and 
the clutch disengaged. If the hill is a long one, the motor 
may be stopped altogether, and the car allowed to run down 
by gravity; the quiet running will be found a welcome change. 
On nearing the bottom of a hill, the clutch should be gradu¬ 
ally let in so as to start up the motor again. If the hill is 
very steep, the car should be kept well in hand from the very 
top. The first (lowest) speed should be put in and the current 
switched off; thus the engine will be converted into a pump, 
and will serve as an auxiliary brake, though this is not pos- 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 77 

sible, of course, where the application of the pedal brake 
throws out the clutch. 

Both the foot and the hand brakes should be tested soon 
after starting out on a run. If the car shows a disposition to 
get away down a hill, the clutch should be let in gently with 
the ignition switched off or the throttle quite closed. This 
will serve to limit the speed of the car. Broadly speaking, and 
in a general wa}q the brakes should be applied as little as pos¬ 
sible. One sometimes sees a car come dashing up to its desti¬ 
nation, and pull up in a few yards. This only shows that the 
driver has more control over the machine than he has over 
himself. It is smart, no doubt, especially for the tires. 

Nothing is gained, but rather the contrary, by applying the 
brakes so hard as to skid the wheels. It is really much more 
clever to throttle down gradually and let the car arrive at the 
desired point upon momentum only. 

On reaching one’s destination, the current should be switched 
off, the gasolene tap closed, and the dripping of the lubricators 
stopped. The first and the last of these operations should be 
performed on stops of even short duration. 

If it is desired to reverse the car, it must first be brought 
to a dead stop, the engine of course being left running, and 
the clutch disengaged. The reverse gear is now put in, and 
the clutch very gradually re-engaged. It is as well to practise 
reversing in a wide space at first, as the steering will be found 
somewhat awkward. Remember that if you encounter a hill 
that your car cannot climb, even on the first speed, it may be 
able to get up on the reverse, being driven backward, of course, 
for the purpose. 

As a general rule, do not advance either the timing of the 
sparking or the opening of the throttle suddenly. The changes 
effected by these means should always be made gradually. 
And, finally, practise with your car until the control of it 
becomes perfectly automatic. Until then you can never trust 
yourself to do the right thing in an emergency. 


78 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


Sources of Side-slip. 

One of the worst evils the driver has to contend with is .that 
of side-slip, and it is not to be surprised at if he loses his head 
somewhat on the first two or three occasions that this diver¬ 
sion occurs. The accident is nearly always compound—that 
is to say, the slipping in itself is not dangerous; but if the 
car strikes anything else, that thing will be damaged as well 
as the car. 

It is a well-known fact in mechanics that if a sliding move¬ 
ment occurs between two contacting bodies, the one that is in 
motion may be moved at an angle to its path with comparative 
ease. In driving, therefore, on slippery surfaces, great care 
should be taken to avoid any variation from the true rolling 
motion of the wheels on the road. The variation may occur 
in several ways. For instance, if the engine be suddenly accel¬ 
erated, the driving wheels will tend to spin round instead of 
merely rolling forward. Again, if the brakes be suddenly 
applied, the road wheels may rotate slower than the progress 
of the car corresponds to, and, indeed, they may cease to rotate 
at all, merely sliding along. Further, in passing over an un¬ 
even road the car may bounce, so that the wheels at times are 
actually out of contact with the road surface. Under any of 
these conditions, a very slight disturbing force will be enough 
to deflect the car from its straight course, and cause side-slip. 

So long as the road is hard and dry, the friction between the 
tires and the road surface will be ample to prevent skidding; 
but if the hard smooth surface be covered with thin mud, or 
if a comparatively soft surface be covered with thick mud, 
the car will be prevented from obtaining a firm grip and may 
begin to slide at any moment. The same thing may, or will, 
happen on roads that are deep in dust; but the worst surface 
is undoubtedly ice that has begun to thaw. 

Another source of side-slip is found in connection with 
street car lines. The lines themselves, or the tracks in which 
they are laid, often project above the general level of the road, 
or sometimes are depressed below the same, in either case 
forming ridges which tend to prevent the car traveling at an 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


79 


angle thereto. The disturbing effect is greatest when the lines 
are wet. Probably the fact that cars are driven from the back 
and steered by the front contributes to their tendency to slip, 
as the rear part has a disposition to push round the front, on 
one side or the other. Of course, the greatest tendency to 
side-slip occurs when the car is being driven round a corner, 
as the centrifugal force then exerts a considerable lateral 
pressure upon the vehicle. 

To Avoid Skidding. 

To avoid side-slip our novice may take certain precautions. 
We will not say, do not take the car out when the roads are 
slippery, because it may not always be possible to follow that 
advice; and further, though the roads may be perfectly safe as 
a rule, you may find that a sprinkling cart has made them 
quite the reverse over more or less restricted sections. But 
when a greasy stretch is encountered, proceed slowly, especially 
in making turns. If the car begins to slip, keep your wits 
about you and begin to steer in the direction of the slip. This 
may be exactly contrary to your inclination, but it will tend to 
restore the grip of the wheels on the road; and as soon as 
this result is attained, you may begin carefully to steer again 
in the direction you wish to follow. As the camber or trans¬ 
verse curve of the road surface helps to promote side-slip, one 
should drive as much on the crown of the road as considera¬ 
tion for other traffic will allow. 

In turning corners to the right, take the right side of the 
road; but in turning corners to the left, only take the left 
side of the road if you can see that the course is clear. If you 
keep on the inside of the corner, the transverse inclination of 
the road will help to get the car round. In taking corners, 
it is a good plan to declutch, and also to abstain from putting 
on the brakes; the chances of getting round safely are much 
increased if the car simply rolls round the curve. Street car 
tracks should be crossed at as nearly a right angle as possible. 
But if you are running along a crowded road laid with car 
tracks, and wish to get on to or off from the track, the steering 


80 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


should be as gradual as possible, so that if the wheels refuse 
to take the ridges, the disturbing effect will be very small. One 
grain of comfort we can give: Side-slip is practically never 
accompanied by overturning, unless the car catches against 
some low object. 

Non-slip Devices. 

Prevention, however, is better than cure, and it is well to 
adopt some form of non-slipping device. Nearly all of these 
devices consist of some apparatus fitted to the tires and de¬ 
signed to cut through the grease, and so obtain a hold on the 
firm surface below. 

A fairly effective non-slipper may be improvised by winding 
strong cord round the tire and felloes in spiral form. The 
ends of the cord must be carefully secured, and the cord itself 
examined frequently, and renewed as required. In any case 
it is best to fit all four wheels with the non-slippers. 

Choice of Track. 

Too many drivers simply take the road as it comes without 
troubling to select the best path. Possibly they are not aware 
that every bump means waste of power and increased wear 
to the car. But such is undoubtedly the case. One can often 
detect the fact that the driver is an experienced cyclist from 
the way in which he picks his course. We do not mean, of 
course, that the driver should keep the car perpetually on the 
wriggle, but simply that where he has the choice to make, he 
shouid take the line which will be best for the vehicle and most 
comfortable for the passengers. Thus a smooth surface is to 
be preferred to a rough one; dry ground is better than wet; 
the crown of the road gives better running than the sloping 
sides; and all reasonable care should be taken to avoid holes 
and loose stones. If a patch of new macadam cannot be 
avoided, it is best to drive up to it at a good speed and then 
declutch, so that the wheels merely roll over the stones, with¬ 
out being subjected to the additional strain set up by driving. 
If the momentum is not sufficient to carry the car the full 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 81 

length of the patch, the remainder should be driven over 
quietly at slow speed. 

Emergencies and General Conduct. 

As a rule, the steering of the car, like the manipulation of 
the throttle and spark timing, should be performed gradually. 
It is very bad for the tires and most provocative of side-slip, 
to swing the steering wheel suddenly from one position to 
another. Perhaps the only times when this may be excused 
is when accidents would otherwise occur; as, for instance, 
when people, especially children, rush across in front of one 
without looking. Again, if a car begins to run back down 
a hill, the steering wheel should be promptly rotated so as 
to change the course of the car to a transverse direction. The 
brakes should be applied at the same time to prevent, if pos¬ 
sible, charging into the bank, fence or other side of the road. 
It is much better to collide with the fence at the top of the hill 
than at the bottom—we mean, stop the car before it has gath¬ 
ered speed. 

The automobilist’s reputation being in many places none of 
the best, it is most important to drive as inoffensively as pos¬ 
sible. It is not enough merely to have regard to the safety of 
other road users. One must avoid driving in such a way as to 
let them think that they have been in danger. It is almost, 
if not quite, as bad to offend a man’s dignity by running him 
fine (as he imagines) as to knock him down. As a general 
rule, it is far safer to pass behind people than in front of them, 
when their path intersects your own. The horn or gong should 
be used fairly freely, though in blasts of short duration, the 
idea being rather to comply with the law than directly to 
profit by the signaling. 

Never drive so fast that you cannot come to a dead stoi? 

within the length of road for the time being seen to be cleai. 

Do not discommode or endanger other users of the road or the 

inhabitants of roadside houses by raising an excessive amount 

of dust, and do not bespatter pedestrians with mud. These 

things may seem a good deal to ask, but are not too much, we 
6 


82 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


think, to require from one who is after all merely taking his 
pleasure in public. 

Speed Limits. 

Speed limits are misguiding*. There can be no harm morally 
in disregarding them where the road and its approaches can 
be seen to be clear; and they do not license one to travel up 
to them, where to do so would be to endanger the public. With 
the best intentions in the world, one is liable to travel too 
fast unwittingly at times. Thus, after a clear run at a good 
speed in the open, the pace is reduced to what seems a mere 
crawl on reaching a village. The driver contrasts his crawl 
with the speed he has just been running at; the village resi¬ 
dent, on the contrary, compares it with the rate of progress of 
the local horses—and the resulting impressions are naturally 
somewhat different. A speedometer has its uses. 

Do not confine your attention to the road merely; have an 
eye open for somnambulistic pedestrians with a weakness for 
leaving one path for the other with no regard for the traffic 
on the roadway. Treat them gently; it spoils their temper 
to wake them suddenly. Do not be satisfied with being in the 
right; keep out of scrimmages at all costs, for the automobilist 
cannot reckon on justice in these days. Observe the rules of 
the road, that is, keep to the right when meeting other vehicles, 
and to the left when overtaking them. But these rules must 
be disobeyed if necessary to avoid an accident. 

Driving through City Traffic. 

In driving through towns and cities one should be careful 
to see that the course is clear before attempting to overtake 
vehicles in front. It is not always necessary to swing round 
to the off side in order to ascertain the possibility of getting 
by, as many vehicles can be seen right through from end to 
end. When about to turn off to the right or left, in crowded 
thoroughfares, it is a good rule that the driver should hold 
out one hand to that side; and for stopping he should hold 
one hand straight up. As you approach a cross street, the win¬ 
dows you see in that street often reflect what is coming up to 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


83 


your road; and by looking at the windows at your side, you 
can also often see reflected the traffic that is coming behind 
you. 

Pedestrians are allowed to walk where they like on a road 
provided they do not unreasonably obstruct other traffic. A 
led horse should be passed (in either direction) on the side of 
the man leading it; but this is convention rather than law. 
Street cars should be met and overtaken on the right side of 
the road. 

Horses, Cattle, and Cyclists. 

Horses are now fairly well accustomed to motor cars in most 
districts; but in remote places many owners have taken little 
or no trouble to educate their animals to the new method of 
locomotion, and special care must be exercised in dealing with 
them. In meeting a doubtful horse, it is best to proceed slowly 
and be ready to stop at any moment, whether the driver holds 
up his hand or not. Some horses have an unpleasant trick 
of looking perfectly unconcerned until almost up to the car, 
and then suddenly backing right across the road. Under these 
circumstances, the automobilist will have to act very promptly 
if a collision is to be avoided. 

In overtaking nervous horses, it is best to drive quickly and 
quietly, so as to shorten the incident as much as possible. Un¬ 
less time is precious, one may offer to spend a few minutes in 
improving a badly trained horse’s acquaintance with motor 
cars. The horse owner’s opinions on the subject are generally 
as much improved as those of his animal. Great care should 
be exercised in overtaking wagons carrying poles and other 
long burdens; as, if the driver draws his horse over to one 
side, the tail of the load swings across the road, and momen¬ 
tarily obstructs the other side. 

The perfect control one has over a car tempts one to assume 
that all other road users are in equal command of their means 
of conveyance. But this is a very unsafe assumption. Every 
rider and driver has a period of inexperience; and even those 
who have got over their novitiate are liable to lose their heads 
at times, as, for example, on hearing a car coming up behind 


84 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


them. The only safe course, therefore, is to see how much, 
not how little, space one can give cyclists, horsemen, and 
others. Remember especially that a cyclist’s position is always 
more or less dangerous when the road is wet and slopes to the 
gutters. 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


85 


PART V. 

DIFFICULTY IN STARTING. 

In the pages immediately following we point out the reme¬ 
dies for most of the ordinary troubles met with by the motorist 
from time to time, beginning with those which may cause 
difficulty in starting. No beginner should be discouraged, 
however, at the length of the list of possible causes of trouble. 
He would be indeed an unlucky driver that experienced re¬ 
peated difficulties in starting and the list given is that of 
possible, not probable, causes of annoyance and delay. It will 
arm the motorist against what may happen. 

Difficulty in Starting —It has been truly said that a gasolene 
motor is a thing of freak notions; it has been known to be 
running perfectly all one day and almost impossible to start 
the next morning, notwithstanding the fact that not a single 
piece of the mechanism has been disturbed—by mortal hand. 
Yet, where a motor stops or fails to start, let it be known there 
is a cause; the chief difficulty for the beginner-—and some¬ 
times for the wisest expert—is to locate the cause, which, once 
discovered, is usually easily remedied. Trouble in starting, ex¬ 
cept in cold weather, when atmospheric conditions determine 
things, is usually traceable to some minor disarrangement and 
probably 90 per cent of all such troubles may safely be traced 


86 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


either to the ignition system or the carbureter and its very 
close relatives. Aside from the reasons here given for a motor 
failing to start as the operator would have it, there have been 
other reasons and there will in the future be found still more. 
Ordinarily the operator who has difficulty in starting his motor 
will find the reason set forth in the paragraphs under this 
heading: if the reason is still remote the case will probably be 
a difficult one and beyond the imagination of any man who 
is any distance from the balky piece of machinery. Difficul¬ 
ties in starting are taken up in their probable order of likeli¬ 
hood. 

Ignition. 

Batteries Weak—Test each drv cell with an ammeter; if it 
shows under 5 or 6 amperes, replace it with a new one. Bet¬ 
ter still, discard the set and put in a new one. If there are 
two sets and each set is weak, connect the two sets in series, 
?\hich will suffice for a time. It is well to always carry an 
ammeter so that in purchasing new cells they may be tested. 
New ones should test in the neighborhood of from 15 to 17 
amperes. 

Storage batteries must not be tested with an ammeter or a 
voltmeter. Attach a wire to one pole and snap the free end 
across the other pole. If a large, snappy spark results, the 
battery is all right. A storage battery never should be per¬ 
mitted to be completely exhausted; nor should it be permitted 
to stand without some use for any length of time, otherwise 
it may be ruined. 

Switch Off—A most common oversight, even with old mo¬ 
torists. 

Loose Connections—Battery terminals or wire leading to 
switch or coil disconnected.—If switch is on and vibrators do 
not buzz, trace the wires for the disconnection. 

Incorrect Wiring—This will not be the case where the motor 
has been running and no alterations have been made; it may 
occur when the wiring has been changed or replaced after 
overhauling. Consult the diagram of wiring as secured from 
the seller and see that the wiring scheme is correct. 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 87 

Plugs—(a) Plugs fouled with oil or carbon—Remove and 
clean. 

(b) Points on make-and-break sooted or fouled—Clean with 
fine file or emery paper. 

(c) Short circuit through broken or cracked porcelain— 
Replace with new plug. 

(d) Points too close or too far apart—Reset to have 1/32 
inch gap. 

Coil—(a) Vibrators stuck—Readjust after cleaning to re¬ 
move possible pitting or dirt, destroying contact. 

(b) Tension of vibrator spring too great for partially run¬ 
down batteries.—Readjust to meet battery condition. 

(c) Coil wet—Remove and take to coil man for repairs. 

(d) Condenser in coil punctured (through use of too high 
voltage, for instance)—Same remedy. 

(e) Wire from battery or commutator disconnected—Re¬ 
place. 

(f) Secondary wire disconnected or broken (but this will 
not prevent vibrators from buzzing). 

Spark Lever—(a) Connections slipped, retarding spark.— 
Reset as per information obtained when purchasing car. 

(b) Connections from spark lever to commutator discon¬ 
nected—Go over and secure as originally. 

Carbureter—Gasolene. 

(a) Throttle closed—Open. 

(b) Gasolene tank empty—Fill. 

(c) Shut-off valve in gasolene line closed—Open. 

(d) Water in gasolene tank, carbureter or line—Drain from 
bottom of carbureter, or disconnect pipe at lowest point, if 
there is no drain cock, and let about a pint drain off. 

In winter water will freeze in carbureter or pipe line and 
absolutely shut off the gasolene supply. 

(e) Dirt in carbureter, choking spray nozzle—Drain car¬ 
bureter and if necessary take out to clean, being careful not to 
disturb adjustments. 


88 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


(f) Float level too high—This will cause flooding of car¬ 
bureter, too rich mixture and sluggish starting, if any. 

Inasmuch as carbureters differ, no rule for changing the 
float level can be laid down. See Carbureters. 

(g) Float punctured or leaky, preventing valve from shut¬ 
ting off and causing carbureter to flood—Secure new float. 

(h) Float level too low, causing weak mixture. 

(i) Air valve spring tension too great, causing too rich 
mixture; too weak, causing motor to take too much air and too 
little gasolene. 

Lack of Suction. 

(a) Valves stuck, holding open, preventing suction and 
compression. This will occur in cold weather if the stems are 
gummed with oil. 

(b) Valve springs weak or broken. If weak, stretch out for 
temporary repair; if broken, remove and place an iron washer 
over the stem and between the pieces of spring. 

(c) Poor compression through fouled valves—Remove and 
grind. See “Useful Information.” 

(d) Leak in intake pipe joints—Set up cap screws, nuts or 
whatever holds pipe to cylinders; if necessary put in new pack¬ 
ing of asbestos, with shellac on either side. 

(e) Relief cocks open—Close. 

(f) Plugs not tight—Screw in close, use copper gasket if 
plug has shoulder. If threads are worn use litharge and gly¬ 
cerine, in paste, to take up wear, same as plumber would use 
red lead. 

(g) Valve pocket caps or valve cage ring nuts loose—Set 
down; use litharge and glycerine if badly worn. 

(h) Piston rings stuck—Put kerosene in cylinders, leave 
stand few hours to loosen rings. 

(i) Carbureter connection to intake pipe loose—Tighten 
and put in new gasket if necessary. 

In Winter—Cold Engine. 

(a) Flood carbureter. 

(b) Close air intake with cloth. 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


89 


(c) Prime cylinders with half teaspoonful gasolene. 

(d) Advance spark little more than usual, because of lag 
in ignition. 

(e) Soak cloth with gasolene and put in air intake so gas 
can be drawn into cylinders. 

(f) Keep throttle well open. 

(g) Warm carbureter with cloth soaked in hot water; or 
pour hot water on carbureter, being sure no water gets into air 
intake. 

Valves Set Wrong. 

If the valves are set so as to open and close at the wrong 
time the motor will not start and will not run. Thus it is 
essential that the valve setting be known and known to be 
correct. 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


yo 


I 


PART VI. 

INVOLUNTARY STOPS. 

Nothing is more annoying to the motorist than to have 
his car suddenly stop without apparent cause. Whether he 
be driving on city streets or touring the country roads such 
a stoppage may often be embarrassing in the extreme unless 
the driver is equipped with sufficient knowledge of possible 
causes to locate the trouble and apply the proper remedy. The 
most likely causes are indicated below and the respective 
remedies are duly prescribed. 

Involuntary Stops —Of course, the car may pull up for de¬ 
fects other than those connected with the engine, but the most 
frequent causes of stoppages (with the exception of tire 
troubles) are due to failures of the motor. With a little ex¬ 
perience one can often guess the cause of the trouble from 
the way in which the stoppages occur. Thus, if the firing cease 
suddenly, it is probably due to a breakage in the electric sys¬ 
tem, or to the seizing of one of the pistons, or to one of the 
valves sticking or breaking, or, lastly, to obstruction of the 
carbureter. On the other hand, if the engine expires gradu¬ 
ally, the trouble probably arises from failure of the water cir¬ 
culation, or the supply of gasolene or lubricating oil, or to 
the choking of the gauzes in the carbureter by dust or ice, or 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


91 


to the leakage of the float or of the compression. Thirdly, if 
the firing is intermittent, it indicates a discharged battery, a 
loose electrical connection, or a cracked sparking plug. We 
do not mean to say that this analysis is exhaustive, but it is a 
guide which will generally be found correct. 

Failure of Gasolene. 

We will consider some of the defects to which the various 
elements of a car are subject. If the gasolene is fed from the 
tank by gravity, the supply may cease owing to the fact that 
air is unable to enter the tank. The remedy is to unscrew the 
cap and let more air in. The cap should have a small airhole 
in it. Some tanks are provided with two caps, one having an 
airhole and the other not. The former is used during running; 
and evaporation is prevented by using the latter at other times. 
If the gasolene be fed under pressure, failure of the pressure 
will, of course, cause failure of supply. The most common 
cause of failure of supply is that the stock is exhausted. This 
generally means negligence, and it is always a good plan to 
carry one or two spare cans of gasolene to be used in case of 
emergency. 

Carbureter Complaints. 

The carbureter’s most usual complaint consists in stoppage 
of the jet by some solid particle carried into it by the gaso¬ 
lene. If this be suspected while the car is running, the air 
supply may be reduced suddenly, so as to cause increased suc¬ 
tion at the jet. If this does not remove the obstacle, one 
should agitate the float. If the carbureter floods and over¬ 
flows from the jet chamber, the trouble has probably been got 
over; if it does not, the passage to the jet should be opened, 
and a fine wire pushed through. Do not use a needle or other 
hard wire for this purpose, as it may break off in the jet. A 
piece of florist’s wire, or wire off a mineral water bottle, if not 
too thick, will serve very well. If the carbureter is provided 
with a well or filter, this should be opened, so that the precipi¬ 
tate may be removed. The cock in the gasolene supply pipe 
should be turned off first, otherwise a quantity of gasolene will 


92 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


be wasted. Or it may be found that water has collected in the 
carbureter; this may be removed in the same way by empty¬ 
ing the well. 

Float and Needle Defects. 

A more awkward situation is created when the float leaks; 
this, of course, upsets the balance of the carbureter, and pre¬ 
vents the gasolene standing at the right height. One can 
easily tell if there is gasolene in the float by taking it out and 
shaking it. To cure the trouble, warm .the float and apply a 
light to it; the gasolene will be vaporized, and will catch light 
at the hole by which it entered. Put out the flame, mark the 
hole, and, if it is not large enough to pour out the gasolene 
through, make another hole in the top of the float and pour it 
out through that. When the float is empty, re-solder both 
holes, using as little solder as possible, so as not to alter the 
weight of float. This method should only be resorted to in 
an emergency, however, as it might result in much more harm 
than good. Another way is simply to remove the float and 
regulate the supply to the jet by the cock in the feed-pipe. 

A defective needle valve will upset the working of the car¬ 
bureter. If it arise from bending of the needle, it may be reme¬ 
died by straightening the needle, and, if necessary, regrinding-in 
the valve. This grinding operation is similar to that of grind¬ 
ing-in the motor valves, which should be studied. Sometimes 
the gauze screens through which the air and gasolene are 
admitted get so clogged up with dirt that the supply of these 
two fluids becomes insufficient. A little careful cleaning is 
all that is required. In cold, damp weather a block of ice will 
sometimes form on the gauze screen at the carbureter end of 
the inlet pipe, and the simplest way to deal with this is to re¬ 
move the screen. Many carbureters are provided with heat¬ 
ing arrangements, and if these are fitted with a cock, the cock 
should be opened on such occasions. 

Ignition Troubles. 

The ignition is a most fruitful source of stoppages, especially 
when on the battery and coil system; and the spark gap de- 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


93 


vice, if not of much use as an intensifies is certainly of con¬ 
siderable value as an index of the state of the system. If a 
good spark is shown at the gap one may fairly conclude that 
the ignition is in fair order up to that point, and first attention 
may therefore be given to the sparking plug. If there is no 
spark gap, one may detach the high-tension wire from the plug 
and hold the end about a quarter of an inch from any metallic 
part of the engine. Hold the wire by the insulation, and, 
better still, wrap a thick cloth round this; then turn the 
starting handle, and see whether a good spark passes from 
the end of the wire. If it does, unscrew the plug from the 
cylinder, and probably you will find that the points, and 
very likely the end of the porcelain also, are covered with a 
carbon deposit. Clean this ofif with gasolene and an old tooth¬ 
brush, and polish up the faces of the points with fine emery 
cloth. See that the points are in line, and about a 
millimeter (or 1/25 in. to 1/26 in.) apart; some recommend 
1/32 inch. Examine the porcelain to see that it is not broken, 
cracked, or loose. Also make sure that the central wire is 
properly secured; if it can twist round, the spark points may 
get out of line when the high-tension wire is attached, and 
then, of course, they will be too far apart for the spark to 
jump. The porcelain may be tightened by carefully screwing 
in the gland nut. 

Now reconnect the wire to the plug, and lay the plug on the 
motor, so that only the metal body thereof is in contact with 
it. Turn the starting handle again, and see whether a good 
spark occurs at the points of the plug; if it does not, try an¬ 
other plug. Do not forget to switch the current on while 
testing. It should be remembered that water is a good con¬ 
ductor, and that if the exposed part of the porcelain is wet, 
the current will pass through it instead of across the points. 
Drying the porcelain will suffice in this case. 

It may be, however, that no spark passes from the end of 
the high-tension wire, or that, though a spark is obtained, it 
will not continue for any length of time; and the test should 
always be continued for, say five or ten seconds. If the 


94 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


sparking gets weaker and perhaps expires during this time, it 
shows that the battery is run down, and such current as it gives 
is only due to temporary recuperation. This should be re¬ 
membered when testing the high-tension wire or the plug. 
The condition of the battery, if of the primary or dry type, 
may be tested by an amperemeter, or “ammeter”, which 
should read at least six amperes. If it is a wet or storage bat¬ 
tery, a voltmeter should be employed, and should show over 
3.8 volts. In each case the test should be made quickly. Some 
voltmeters are so constructed that their indexes come to rest 
promptly, and they are to be preferred for this reason. In¬ 
stead of using a voltmeter, one may employ a four-volt test 
lamp. If this glows, and continues to glow brightly for some 
five or ten seconds, it may be gathered that the battery con¬ 
tains a sufficient charge, but not otherwise. Use the devices 
by applying their terminals to those terminals of the battery 
to which the low-tension wires are connected. If the meter 
shows nothing at all, reverse the application of its terminals. 

If the battery is down, it must either be supplemented 
by another or recharged, if capable of recharging. Thus, if 
a two-cell accumulator shows only about three volts (and it 
should never be allowed to get so low), a single primary 
battery of about 1.5 volts may be coupled in series with the 
storage battery and a good current of 4.5 volts obtained. Of 
course, the right plan is to carry duplicate batteries, so that 
when one gives out the other may be brought into use. It is 
just as well to switch over on to the spare battery now and 
again to make sure that it is in good order, but most of the 
running should be done on one battery, and then when that 
is exhausted it can be recharged while the spare is in use. By 
having a third battery, one can be on charge without depriv¬ 
ing the car of its reserve. 

Reviving Run-down Batteries. 

Although the primary cells are generally reckoned as done 
for when they have once given out their supply, they can 
sometimes be temporarily revived to some extent by merely 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


95 


allowing 1 them to stand; and more positively, by making a 
solution consisting of one part of sulphuric acid and four parts 
of water, and introducing the same through the venthole of 
each cell; about a dessertspoonful may be squirted in by 
means of a small clean oilcan. If the cell will not take the 
whole charge at once, the operation must be performed in 
stages. If the venthole is too small, one can make a hole 
in the marine glue or other material with which the cell is 
sealed, and introduce the solution through it; the hole being 
afterwards closed by warming the glue and squeezing it over 
the hole, or by running in sealing wax. Storage batteries may 
be temporarily revived by steeping them for several minutes 
in hot water. 

Sometimes it is found that batteries, instead of holding 
their charges for the proper time, will run down very quickly. 
This may be due to the primary circuit being left complete 
accidentally—the driver forgets to switch off after a run. Or 
it may be due to a short circuit in the wiring; or, again, to 
some of the paste dropping out of the grids and touching both 
a positive and a negative plate, thus forming an internal short 
circuit. Or it may be caused by a leak past the partition 
between the two cells. If the battery has a transparent cellu¬ 
loid case one can see whether any loose paste is causing a 
short circuit. To test for a leak past the partition, some of 
the acid should be poured out of one cell; then, if there is 
a leak, the acid in the other cell will pass through, and the 
levels of acid in the two cells will be restored. A leaking 
partition should receive immediate attention. 

Detecting Short Circuits. 

Where a short circuit is suspected, it may often be dis¬ 
covered by testing the ignition in the dark, as a spark will 
be noticed as passing from the defective point. The “short” 
is most liable to occur in the hign-tension circuit, that is, in 
connection with the wire leading from the coil to the sparking 
plug; and the short should be looked for while the wire is 
in the position it generally occupies on the car, as the mere 


96 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


act of moving it in order to make the test above described may 
prevent the occurrence of the short circuit from which it suf¬ 
fers. It is a great mistake to purchase cheap insulating wire, 
as a few dischargings of the battery will more than make up 
the difference between the costs of the cheap and best quality 
wire. If, on examining the wire, one finds parts that are 
chafed, they should be carefully bound with insulating tape, 
and steps should be taken to secure the wire so that further 
rubbing will be prevented. A better plan is to slip a length of 
rubber tubing over the wire, or to replace the wire with a 
new length. 

The wires should be kept as free from oil as possible, as oil 
rots the insulation, and thus invites short circuiting. If the 
insulation appears to be quite sound, the trouble may arise 
from breakage of the wire itself. If the wire be passed 
through the fingers with a bending movement, the break will 
probably be easily felt; but if not, it may be detected in the 
case of the primary wire by the voltmeter. The battery, sus¬ 
pected wire, and voltmeter, should be formed into a circuit for 
the purpose; some tension and twisting movement should be 
put on the wire during the test. If there is current in the 
battery, but none can be detected through the wire by the 
voltmeter, there is evidently a break. The wire should be re¬ 
placed by another if possible, but if no spare wire is available, 
the defective one should be cut through at the fault, the insu¬ 
lation slit lengthwise and peeled back for about one inch on 
each part, and the ends thus bared should be twisted together. 
The insulation may then be turned back over the joint and 
the whole bound with insulating tape. 

Terminals and Connections. 

Though the electricity is willing to adopt all sorts of chan¬ 
nels in order to shirk its work, all contacts through which it 
is intended to pass should be thoroughly clean, and should 
be scraped with an old knife for this purpose. Avoid using 
a knife on which you set any value for scraping the terminals 
of the battery, as you will be very likely to make contact acci- 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


97 


dentally with both terminals at once, to the great detriment 
of the blade, not to mention the battery. In order to avoid 
corrosion, the battery terminals may be anointed with a mix¬ 
ture of vaseline and ammonia. 

There are many different devices (also going by the name 
of terminals) for connecting the wires to the different screws, 
etc. These are generally more satisfactory than making loops 
on the ends of the wires themselves, though one has to take 
care that the attached terminals do not project and touch each 
other or other metal parts, and so cause short circuits. It is 
perhaps easier to tell what to avoid than what to do in making 
terminals out of the ends of the wires themselves. Thus the 
wire should not be twisted up into an eye of which one part 
is thicker than another; nor should the eye, when made, be, 
soldered with acid flux, as this brings about corrosion and 
fracture. If the eye is soldered at all, resin should be used, 
but the sudden stiffening of the wire by any soldering is also 
liable to cause breakage. 

Probably the simplest way to make an eye is to untwist the 
wire at a short distance from the end, and then to separate 
the straightened strands equally by pushing a sharp instru¬ 
ment in between, forming a hole sufficiently large to receive 
the screw terminal. A stronger eye may be made by baring 
a good inch of the wire and bending it into a simple loop, and 
then binding together with fine wire the two parts lying in 
parallel contact, leaving an eye of suitable size, as before. In 
securing the one terminal to the other, be careful that no part 
of the insulation is pinched, as this would tend to prevent per¬ 
fect contact between the metallic surfaces; at the same time, 
the insulation should be continued as nearly up to the connec¬ 
tion as possible; and for further security, the whole connection 
may be wrapped with insulating tape. If a detachable plug 
form part of the primary circuit, and be lost, the two lengths 
of wire should be coupled together, the switch being relied 
on for breaking the circuit when required. Or a screw or 
nail, or a piece of wire doubled up into the form of a rod, will 
serve as a substitute. 

7 


98 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


Care of Trembler Points. 

Another cause of intermittent firing is looseness of the 
platinum point on the trembler blade of the contact breaker. 
The presence of dirty oil on the back of the blade round the 
platinum is ground for suspecting that the point is loose. 
Under these circumstances the blade should be detached and 
laid face downward on a hard surface while the back of the 
point is riveted over with a light hammer. The faces of the 
platinum points should make contact squarely with each other; 
but the passage of the current and the tapping of the one point 
on the other spoil the surfaces in course of time, and the 
usual remedy is to file them flat with a thin, watch-maker’s 
file. As platinum, how'ever, is somewhat more expensive than 
gold, it seems a pity to waste it by filing, and the better plan 
is to hammer it smooth with a few light and carefully-applied 
blows. In some cases, too, the distortion of the surfaces can 
be corrected from time to time by changing over the wires on 
the battery terminals so as to send the current the reverse way 
through the points. But if the reversal of the wires is ac¬ 
companied by the failure of the ignition, or excessive sparking 
at the contact breaker, they must, of course, be replaced. In 
anv case, no dirt should be allowed to remain between the 
platinum points, though a drop of oil there is sometimes 
found to be an advantage rather than otherwise. The points 
may be cleaned by inserting a thin card or a slip of strong 
paper between them, and then withdrawing the card while the 
points are pressed together. Be careful that no particles of 
paper are left behind, as they will be as bad as, or worse 
than, the dirt. 

Adjusting Contact Breakers. 

In adjusting a make-and-break contact breaker one has to 
see that the cam projection lifts the blade into contact with 
the screw, and that when the projection has passed, the points 
are out of contact. Provided the points make a good firm con¬ 
tact, nothing is gained by the excessive bending of the blade, 
but rather the reverse, as current is wasted by the prolonged 
contact. 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


99 


Unscrew the sparking plug and lay it on part of the metal 
work so that one can see the spark, and so that the terminal 
end of the plug lies clear of the metal work. Then fix the 
contact screw at that position which corresponds with the best 
spark at the plug. Notwithstanding the action of the conden¬ 
ser, a small spark will be noticed as the points at the contact 
breaker separate. In fact, if no spark shows here it is a pretty 
sure sign that either the battery is run down or there is a 
fault in the primary circuit. 

Wipe contact breakers are generally self-adjusting by means 
of a spring. They should, of course, be kept clean, but they 
should be freely oiled; the reason for this being that if they 
are run dry the wipe tends to scrape particles off the metallic 
segment and embed them in the fiber cam, thus constructing a 
path through which the current will continue to pass after it 
should be broken, and disturbing the timing of the sparking 
and wasting the current. Any such particles should be re¬ 
moved ; and the metal and fiber surfaces should be kept even 
with one another, as inequalities frequently cause the wiper 
to jump, with irregular firing as a result. 

Coil Troubles. 

When every other part of the ignition system has been 
proved to be in order, one can only conclude that the trouble 
is in the coil. This may be due to failure of the insulation. If, 
on the system being connected up and the contact breaker be¬ 
ing worked, a ticking noise be heard in the coil, this is a 
pretty sure sign of defective insulation. The only remedy 
is to get the coil repaired by an electrician, preferably the coil- 
maker himself. The trouble, however, may arise from loose 
connections at the coil, or from loose strands of wire caus¬ 
ing a “short” from one coil terminal to another. These 
troubles can, of course, be easily remedied if they occur at the 
exposed ends of the terminals; but if the shorting is between 
the inside connections, the cover must be carefully removed so 
as not to break the wires, and as carefully replaced in its 
proper position after correcting the fault. 


100 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


If the coil trembler suddenly stops work, it is probably be¬ 
cause it has stuck. Should this happen, the trembler may be 
set in motion again temporarily by unsticking it, but the 
platinum-pointed screw should be readjusted as soon as pos¬ 
sible. The platinum points should be inspected, and, if neces¬ 
sary, cleaned and reshaped; they should stand normally about 
half a millimeter apart, but it is best to effect the adjust¬ 
ment with the sparking plug where the points can be seen, 
so that the platinum-pointed screw can be locked at the posi¬ 
tion which shows the best spark. The tightening of the lock¬ 
nut on the screw will generally upset the adjustment some¬ 
what, and this must be allowed for by setting the points a 
little too close together before finally tightening up. If this 
adjustment will not cure the trouble, the defect may lie in the 
loss of elasticity in the spring blades; if so, they must be re¬ 
placed by new ones. 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


101 


PART VII. 

LOSS OF POWER. 

Loss of Power —In ordinary practice the loss of power in a 
gasolene motor develops rapidly; that is, within a few hours 
or at most a few days. It would require several years for a 
motor of modern design and manufacture to wear sufficiently 
to cause any appreciable falling off in effective work. It must 
be reasoned, then, that something has gone wrong, more or 
less suddenly, something that can ordinarily be detected by 
careful and patient search. This may take several hours, or 
even a day or two, and can be accomplished only by beginning 
at the most likely and most frequent cause and going all down 
the line—by the process of elimination, as in most cases of 
apparently serious difficulties with the gasolene motor. 

Weak batteries, loss of compression and poor carbureter ad¬ 
justment may be put down as the prime causes of loss of 
power. It is not difficult to determine the exact state of the 
ignition system; it is not difficult to adjust a carbureter; and 
it is not difficult to learn that the motor’s compression has 
fallen off. It is, sometimes, difficult to ascertain the cause 
of the loss of compression. 

It must be remembered, however, that the condition of one 
of these prime elements bears important relation to the other. 
For instance, a carbureter cannot be correctly adjusted unless 
the ignition system is right and the compression is somewhere 
near normal. Because of this it is essential that the ignition 
system be given attention first, followed by ascertaining that 
the compression is good and equal in all the cylinders. 

Ignition. 

(a) Weak Batteries—Test dry cells to show from 15 to 17 
amperes on an ammeter, disregarding voltage. If the batteries 
show under 5 to 7 amperes, replace with new ones. Possibly 


102 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


only one cell will show depletion, in which case one new cell 
may effect a remedy, for a time at least. If there are two sets 
of batteries in the car they can be connected together in series 
—that is, all the cells connected as if there was but one set— 
and this will carry the car to a point where new batteries can 
be secured. 

If a storage cell is used, test by connecting one end of a 
wire to one of the binding posts and snapping the other end 
across the other binding post. A large, snappy spark will in¬ 
dicate sufficient current; if it is an apparent weak spark, which 
can easily be determined, the battery needs recharging. 

It is well to know that dry cells can be obtained at almost 
any telephone office in the country, so that under ordinary 
circumstances the motorist can run his car to one of these 
stations. 

(b) Timer Slipped—This retards the ignition and usually 
causes overheating of the motor. The location of the timer 
in relation to the shaft to which it is attached should be 
marked, so as to be replaced easily. Also, the owner should 
know just where the spark lever should be on the quadrant 
when the piston is at the top of the compression stroke, and 
when contact on the timer is made. Sometimes the slipping 
may be found to have occurred at the connections between the 
hand lever and the timer. Look these over and if possible take 
up all slack, so as to make the movement of the timer through 
the spark lever positive. 

(c) Plugs, Fouled or Short Circuited—Clean the plugs by 
immersing in gasolene and cutting the carbon deposits off with 
a knife. At the same time see that the points are 1/32-inch 
apart—no more, no less. Accumulated oil will cause a short 
circuit, as will carbon deposits or a cracked or chipped porce¬ 
lain. 

(d) Timer Gummed—Unless a timer is cleaned occasionally 
the old grease or oil will become gummed and saturated with 
metal filings caused by wear. This will cause a loss of some 
of the current and result in lag in the ignition; consequently a 
feeble impulse in one or more cylinders. Likewise a magneto 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


103 


must be kept clean in order to transmit current. A timer should 
be cleaned with gasolene and after dried of all the gasolene 
should be packed in hard grease, which not only remains as a 
lubricant but will tend to prevent dust from reaching the con¬ 
tact points. 

(e) Poor Contact on Timer or Magneto—Where a timer is 
used, not infrequently the primary wire is not fitted with 
terminals to attach to the binding posts on the timer and the 
soil, the wires of several strands being attached direct. The 
movement of the timer in retarding and advancing the spark 
gradually breaks these little strands, until perhaps, only one 
or two remain—and one or two are not sufficient to carry cur¬ 
rent. In other cases the primary wires at the timer become 
oil-soaked and much current is lost. Poor contact at the timer, 
magneto, coil, battery, switch or plug will prevent a full flow 
of current and interrupt proper ignition of the gases in the 
cylinders. 

(f) Oil-soaked Secondary Wires—Keep the wires leading to 
the plugs, in particular, and in fact any wires, free from oil and 
dirt, otherwise more or less of the circuit will be lost. 

Loss of Compression. 

(a) Valves Fouled; Not Seating—If the motor shows loss 
of compression, look first to the condition of the valves ; prob¬ 
ably they do not seat properly and closely and must be ground. 
This should be done promptly. Too much lubrication—pos¬ 
sibly in combination with a poor mixture—causes this state of 
affairs. In cities, where speed is restricted and where the mo¬ 
torist is tempted to jog along with a low charge of gas and a 
high spark, the heat from the explosion is not sufficient to burn 
the excess of oil and the valves soon become coated, prevent¬ 
ing them from seating and permitting the loss of compression. 

(b) Nuts for Valve Cages not Tight—In valve-in-the-head 
motors, where cages are employed to form the valve seat and 
carry the valve and stem, the ring nut used to hold the cage 
down on its seat may not be set down tight, thus permitting 
compression to become weak. When the motor is hot, after 



104 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


two or three hours’ use, set the nuts down. Treat valve nuts 
in T-head motors the same way. Where the threads have 
spread or become worn through constant removal, make a thin 
paste of litharge and glycerin and rub on the threads. Set the 
ring or nut down tight and let stand over night for the litharge 
to harden. It might be stated here that cracks, small holes, 
etc., may be thoroughly closed by the use of litharge in this 
form. 

(c) Valve Spring Weak—Where a valve spring has become 
weakened, a temporary repair may be made by building up 
with iron washers that will fit over the valve stem and cover 
the spring, care being taken that the washers do not bind the 
valve stem or prevent its free working. 

(d) Valve Spring Broken—If a valve spring breaks, place 
an iron washer between the pieces of spring—over the valve 
stem, of course—and a splendid emergency job will have been 
accomplished, one that will last indefinitely. 

(e) Air Leak at Plug—This can be detected, usually, by 
placing the hand near the plug, when escaping air or gas can 
be felt. Or, pour a little oil around the plug while the motor 
is running and the leak will be immediately noticed by the oil 
bubbling. A leaky valve may be detected in the same man¬ 
ner. If the plug has a shoulder, a copper gasket can be in¬ 
serted between the shoulder and the cylinder. If there is no 
shoulder, litharge and glycerine in a paste can be used on the 
threads to stop the leak. 

(f) Rings Stuck—Over-lubrication will cause the oil to settle 
under the rings on the piston and eventually stick them to the 
piston, permitting the gas to escape past the rings. Inject a 
couple of teaspoonfuls of kerosene in each cylinder and permit 
it to stand over night. This will loosen the rings effectually. 
Better still, do not over-lubricate and the rings will not stick; 
too much lubrication will cause as much trouble—but not as 
much damage—as an insufficient supply. 

(g) Broken Ring—If a ring breaks, its springiness is gone 
and the gases will escape past. The only remedy is a new ring 
A metallic knock sometimes will denote a broken ring. 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


105 


(h) Ring Slots in Line—Where rings are not pinned in 
place, it is possible for the slots at the ends to “get in line,” 
and under such circumstances gases will escape. If the rings 
are free they will right themselves. This is an unlikely trouble, 
however. 

(i) Lack of Pushrod Clearance—Be sure there is clearance 
between the pushrods and valve stems, otherwise the valves 
will be held open slightly but sufficiently to cause loss of com¬ 
pression. This is apt to occur after valve grinding and the 
valve has been lowered a trifle through grinding. Give some 
clearance, as a temporary relief, but ascertain from the maker 
of the car the right amount to give proper valve -lift. 

(j) Lack of Lubrication—Oil fills the space between the 
cylinder walls and rings and piston. Lack of oil will permit 
some gas to escape. 

(k) Leak at Gasket—Where cylinder heads are detachable, 
and where gaskets are used, a leak is very possible. A new 
gasket should be put in, using shellac on either side to cement 
it to the iron. 

( l ) Rocker Shaft Worn or Loose—In motors fitted with 
make-and-break ignition the rocker shaft may have become 
worn, or the rocker shaft barrel loosened, permitting loss of 
compression. Usually the remedy for the first named is either 
a new shaft or new mica insulation, while a copper gasket can 
be used over the barrel. 

(m) Valve Stem Bent—A bent valve stem will prevent the 
valves from properly opening and closing by sticking and thus 
cause loss of compression. It can be heated and straightened 
for a temporary repair, but a new one is the surest remedy. 
If bent only slightly a little filing and finishing with fine 
emery cloth will prove effective for a temporary job. Where 
a valve stem has been straightened it is best to put it in a lathe 
to be trued up and then ground to fit the valve seat. 

(n) Cylinders or Rings Out of True—In horizontal motors 
in particular, where one side of the piston rests on one side of 
the cvlinder, these parts are liable to “wear oval.” This is not 
apt to occur in a vertical motor. To effectually remedy this 


106 AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 

the cylinders must be reground and new pistons and rings 
fitted. 

Mixture. 

(a) Lack of Gasolene—Insufficient supply of gasolene at 
the spray nozzle—through clogging by sediment or dirt, or 
lack of pressure in pressure-feed systems—will cause a loss of 
power, particularly in hill-climbing or through heavy roads. 
Water in the gasolene will sometimes slightly restrict the 
flow, which should at all times be free. The remedy is a thor¬ 
ough cleaning of the fuel line. 

(b) Surplus of Gasolene—Too much gasolene, through too 
great an opening of the needle valve of the carbureter will 
tend to choke the motor, particularly upon opening the throt¬ 
tle suddenly, and cause a sluggish-running motor. It will 
also heat the motor. If it is a case of too little or too much 
gasolene, readjust the carbureter, as per direction elsewhere. 

(c) Float Level Too High—If the level of the gasolene in 
the carbureter is such as to be more than just below the top 
of the spray nozzle—about 1/32 to 1/16-inch in most car¬ 
bureters—the mixture will be too heavy and cause sluggish 
running of the motor—if too low, the feed will be insuffi¬ 
cient and will cause a loss of power at normal speeds and miss¬ 
ing at high motor speeds. Where the float level is too low 
the valve shuts off too soon. With the gasolene level wrong 
it is impossible to property adjust the carbureter, .inasmuch 
as the tendency is to increase the fuel supply through opening 
the needle valve, which, while it may result in a correct mix¬ 
ture at some particular motor speed may be too rich at an¬ 
other. To correctly adjust a carbureter it is necessary to 
have the gasolene level right and to also have the ignition 
in good working order. 

(d) Auxiliary Air Valve Spring Broken—Should the air 
valve spring in the carbureter be broken—which is not likely, 
however—the motor will be permitted to take in a surplus 
of air. This will in all probability be known by the motor 
missing if it keeps on running, which is doubtful. A case was 
known, however, where the air valve spring was entirety gone 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 107 

and still the motor would run, although it was hard to start 
and did not develop power. Should the air valve slip out of 
place or be broken the effect on the motor would be similar 
to that in the case of a broken spring. 

Other Causes. 

(a) Lack of Water Circulation—Insufficient supply of water 
in the cooling system, or poor water circulation, causing over¬ 
heating or a tendency to overheat, will permit the cylinders 
and pistons to expand and to bind sufficiently to precipitate a 
loss of power. This will in all likelihood be preceded by a 
decided knocking, especially if the lubrication is not excessive. 

(b) Intake Restricted—Where a car has been driven through 
dusty or muddy roads, the gradual accumulation of dirt in the 
intake pipe because of the absence of a pan under the motor, 
for instance, will settle in the pipe and cause a restriction that 
will act as a throttle. This can be remedied only by remov¬ 
ing the pipe and cleaning by running a gasolene-soaked cloth 
through it. 

(c) Throttle Connections Slipped—See that the connections 
between the throttle lever and the valve in the carbureter have 
not slipped and permitted the throttle to become partially 
closed. This is a not infrequent cause of the apparent lack of 
power. 

(d) Muffler or Exhaust Pipe Clogged—A restricted muffler 
or exhaust pipe will pull down the power to a remarkable de¬ 
gree. If a cut-out is fitted to the exhaust system it will be 
easy to discover, with this open, if the motor seems to develop 
its full power. If it shows a falling off of power when closed 
the exhaust pipe and muffler should be cleaned. They should 
be taken down, soaked in kerosene and washed out with gaso¬ 
lene. Be sure, however, to see that the gasolene has been 
permitted to evaporate before attaching to the car and starting 
the motor, else a bad explosion may result. They should be 
permitted to stand all night and in a position so as to drain 
well. 

(e) Too Heavy Load—If the car is loaded beyond its nor¬ 
mal capacity it is not unlikely there will be a falling off in 



108 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


apparent power. Load the car to its normal capacity and see 
if there is any appreciable difference in the work of the motor. 

(f) Bind on Running Gear or Transmission—Bummed axle 

bearings, dry differential or transmission, bent axle or steering 

knuckles, motor or transmission out of line, brakes binding or 

partially set, will cause loss of power. In searching for the 

cause it will be well to push the car along the floor to see if 

it runs freely, and that there is nothing materially wrong with 

the running gear. If it pushes hard it will be necessary to 

trace the trouble and remedy it. 

* 

(g) Soft Tires—Soft tires will make a car push extremely 
hard, either by hand or by motor power. Before trying the 
car to see how the running gear works, be sure the tires are 
pumped hard. 

(h) Stiff Valve Springs—Where suction valves are used 
and a change in the springs has been made, possibly one 
that is too strong has been used. This will prevent a full 
charge of gas from entering the cylinders and thus the force 
of the explosion will be materially weakened. This cannot 
occur, however, unless some change has been made in the 
springs. 

(i) Quality of Fuel—Fuel has much to do with the power 
that can be obtained from a gasolene motor, but if a carbureter 
is adjusted for certain grades the difference will hardly be 
perceptible. It is a mistake to suppose that a grade of gaso¬ 
lene of high test will give more power; as a matter of fact 
there are more heat units in a given quantity, in bulk, of the 
lower grades, but unless the carbureter is properly adjusted 
these heat units in the lower grades cannot be turned into 
working agents as readily as can those in the higher grades. 
With the lower grades of gasolene more heat is required to 
volatilize the gasolene than with the higher grades. 

(j) Cold Motor—When a motor is extremely cold, particu¬ 
larly if the gasolene supply at the needle valve is cut down to 
a pretty fine point, the gasolene cannot be volatilized or made 
into gas and the actual result is a very light charge. In this 
case it is well, when the motor shows loss of power and misses, 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


109 


to run the motor with a later spark and a larger charge of gas 
until the motor has had an opportunity to become warm and 
to help volatilize the gasolene. 




no 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


PART VIII. 

CARE AND MAINTENANCE. 

Care and Maintenance —Private Housing—The private car 
house or garage should, if possible, be constructed of brick, 
stone or cement, though where cost is a prime consideration, 
very serviceable wooden and corrugated iron houses can be 
built. The house should be large enough to provide a space 
of at least four feet all round the car. 

There should be large doors at each end of the house if space 
permits, so that the car may be run in one way and out the 
other. This will save a lot of time and trouble in reversing. 

The floor should be of concrete, and care should be taken 
to avoid nooks and crannies, into which small parts can run 
and hide, if accidentally dropped. In the middle of the floor a 
pit should be dug. This should measure about 3 ft. 6 in. wide, 
4 ft. deep, and 6 ft. or more long, according to the size of the 
car. Steps should lead down into it at each end, and a strong 
cover must be provided. The edge of the pit should have a 
projecting ridge to prevent the wheels of the car being acci¬ 
dentally moved over the pit, and also to prevent other things 
running into it. The pit, as well as the floor of the house, 
should be drained. 

Light and Warmth. 

Light is best admitted through windows in the roof, and 
these should be made to open and close, or other ample means 
of ventilation should be provided. If a current of electricity 
can be laid on to the garage, it will be found a great advan¬ 
tage in several ways. In the first place it affords a very con¬ 
venient and safe means of lighting at night. Besides hand- 
lights that can be carried about, a number of fixed sockets for 
the electric lamps should be provided on the walls, and also in 
the pit. The electric current will also be useful in charging 
the batteries, especially if the car is an electric one. 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


111 


A good supply of water should be laid on for cleaning pur¬ 
poses, and the soft rainwater falling on the roof should be col¬ 
lected in a covered tank, as soft water should always be used 
in the radiator. I he water should be drawn off as clear as 
possible, and passed through a fine strainer into the radiator. 

The warming of the house requires careful attention. It is 
not advisable to use a coal fire or oilstove inside the house on 
account of the flame. A very high temperature is not desir¬ 
able ; provided it is well above freezing, that is enough, though 
it is always safest to run off the circulating water, in case the 
heating apparatus break down. So far as the tires are con¬ 
cerned, the atmosphere of the house should be neither too 
hot nor too dry; nor, for that matter, too light. 

A workbench should be erected near one corner of the house, 
and if it can be supplemented by a small lathe so much the 
better. If the car is provided with a detachable top for the 
body, a pulley should be hung from the middle of the roof, so 
that the top may be manipulated easily, and suspended clear 
when out of use. 

Cleaning. 

On returning from a dirty run the mud may be washed off 
the car by carefully turning the hose on it. The painted work 
may be afterward dried with a soft clean sponge, and be pol¬ 
ished with a leather in the usual way. In using the hose, care 
should be taken to keep the water and grit out of the bear¬ 
ings and other working parts as much as possible. The tires 
should be wiped clean and dried. See that they are well 
inflated, and that no water gets in to rust the rims and rot 
the canvas. The exterior of the engine, gear, etc., may best 
be cleaned by a good-sized paint brush dipped in kerosene. If 
the leathers of the clutch, brakes or pump get too greasy, they 
may be cleansed by washing with waste gasolene. The clutch 
leather should not be allowed to get dry; on the contrary, it 
should be kept moist with special oil, evenly applied, and pref¬ 
erably allowed to soak in over night. 

It is worth while giving the chains of chain-driven cars a 
good deal more attention than they generally receive. They 


112 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


should be taken off occasionally and thoroughly cleansed in a 
bath of kerosene. Then they should be hung up to drain, and 
subsequently be dipped in a bath of melted tallow, which may 
contain a fair proportion of graphite. The tallow should be 
no hotter than is required to keep it liquid. After the chains 
have been stirred about in the tallow, so as to work it into the 
joints, they should be wiped, to remove the surplus grease, 
and allowed to cool. It is a good plan to keep two sets of 
chains, so that while one set is in use, plenty of time will be 
available for treating the other. 

The muffler should be cleaned out occasionally to prevent 
the deposits therein accumulating to such an extent as to 
choke the passages, and so put back pressure on the motor. 

Care of the Hands. 

While on the subject of cleaning it may be as well to give 
here one or two hints as to cleaning the hands. Before start¬ 
ing to do anything to a motor car, it is a good plan to fill the 
nails and the crevices around the same with soap, and the 
fingers also may be rubbed over with the same material. This 
prevents the dirt securing positions from which it is most dif¬ 
ficult to dislodge it. A great deal of the dirt that does adhere 
may be removed by rinsing the hands in kerosene or stale gas¬ 
olene. To rub the hands in vaseline and put a few drops of 
ammonia into the hot washing water is a useful plan. Many 
have also found soft soap, pumicestone soap, and some of the 
advertised preparations useful for cleaning the hands. Gaso¬ 
lene, even if stale, comes in handy for removing grease spots 
from the clothes. A piece of flannel should be moistened with 
the gasolene, and a ring described with it round the spot, to 
prevent the latter spreading. Then a second application of 
the liquid should be made, first holding the moistened flannel 
on the spot for a few moments and then rubbing it vigorously. 
The odor very quickly passes off. 

Lubricating. 

All the rotating and rubbing surfaces on the motor require 
lubrication, except leather brake bands, leather pump tire, and 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


113 


the stems of the inlet and exhaust valves. Besides the motor 
itself, the steering sockets, connections, worm and column 
bearings require attention; also the bearings of the road 
wheels, the transmission gearing and levers, the balance gear, 
and the starting apparatus. The pump and radiator fan bear¬ 
ings must not be overlooked. A new car requires more lubri¬ 
cating during the first 200 or 300 miles, while it is settling 
down, than it does afterwards. If the engine appears sluggish, 
it is sometimes due to lack of lubrication; a little extra oil will 
often help in hill-climbing. The dirty oil which accumulates 
in the crank case should be run off occasionally, and every 
few hundred miles the oil pipes and bearings should be 
cleansed out with kerosene, the engine run for half a minute 
or so in this way, and then the kerosene run off and full doses 
of proper lubricating oil administered. When using the kero¬ 
sene, make sure that it runs through. If a pipe gets choked 
it should be blown clear, or a wire pushed through it. 

While it is bad economy to stint the lubricating oil, it is a 
very common fault to use a great deal too much. This is not 
only wasteful, but tends to foul the valves, sparking plugs, 
and platinum contacts. Further, it has a prejudicial effect in 
creating a cloud of evil blue smoke. The driver should keep a 
look-out to see that he is not thus polluting the atmosphere 
and bringing motoring into evil repute. He should also be 
careful to close his lubricators when stopping, as otherwise the 
cloud will be apparent when restarting, even though the lubri¬ 
cators may be correctly adjusted for running. 

Adjusting. 

“Little and often” is an excellent motto in the care of motor 
cars, the “little” being a consequence of the “often.” The 
great thing is to give the attention regularly. All working 
parts should be adjusted to move freely but without shake. 
This insures the highest efficiency and absence of noise. Spring 
washers are often useful in attaining these results where 
proper means are not provided for adjustment. All nuts used 
for positive gripping purposes should be secured by castle 
s 


114 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


locknuts, with split pins passing through a hole in the bolt 
and through the slots in the nut. 

Adjustable Bearings. 

As a rule, the owner will do well not to attempt the adjust¬ 
ment of plain and roller bearings. Ball bearings are com¬ 
paratively easy to adjust, if provision is made for adjustment. 
At one end will be found a locknut, and on the same screw a 
cone. When the locknut is released the cone may be screwed 
along the spindle either into or out of the bearing. It should 
be screwed in until it will go no further without using force, 
then it should be unscrewed about half a turn. Now, if the 
locknut be retightened, it will probably be found that the bear¬ 
ing will work freely and without shake. It is better to have 
just a perceptible shake than to have a bearing too tight, and 
the final tightening of the locknut will usually tighten the 
bearing itself a little, owing to slackness in the screw threads. 

A scrunching noise in a bearing should receive immediate 
attention, the bearing being taken apart in order to discover 
the cause. It may be found to be due merely to the presence 
of some grit, though that is bad enough. In this case a 
thorough cleansing of the bearing and lubrication will cure 
the trouble. If one of the balls is found to be broken, all the 
bits must be removed and a new ball inserted. But unless a 
new one of exactly the right size can be procured, it is best to 
run the bearing with the ball short for the time being; as, 
should the new ball be a shade too large, it will also certainly 
cause trouble. When the bearing is apart the cones and cups 
should be carefully examined for scores and cracks, as if these 
are found, the parts affected should be renewed at the earliest 
opportunity. In some cases, where the damage to the bearing 
parts is serious, it is best to remove the balls and let the bear¬ 
ing run on the plain surfaces as far as the nearest point avail¬ 
able for repairs. If a wheel spindle has been cut into so as to 
weaken it materially, the load should be lightened as much as 
possible, or the run discontinued entirely, pending repairs. 

A car should not be run with either the wheel bearings or 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


115 


the steering crossbar joints very slack, as the wheels will wob¬ 
ble under these conditions, and the bearings and tires will get 
badly worn. 

Brake Treatment. 

Hie adjustment of the brakes is even more important than 
that of the bearings. They require treating according to their 
individual construction. Two points, however, should be 
borne in mind: First, that the pedal or hand lever should 
not be at the limit of its stroke, even when the brake is hard 
on; and second, that the braking surfaces should not rub any¬ 
where when the brake is off. 

Charging Batteries. 

As there are now many stations where one can get batteries 
charged at a small expense, it seems hardly worth while trou¬ 
bling to do one’s own charging if this involves putting in a 
plant for the purpose. But where a suitable source of electric¬ 
ity is available, it is a great thing to be able to keep the voltage 
well over 4; and where no charging station is at hand, it may 
be almost necessary to do the work oneself. And here the 
reader may be reminded that if he finds himself in a strange 
place where no one undertakes recharging, and where no wet 
cells are to be bought, dry batteries can often be purchased 
at the local hardware store; and one or two of these may be 
coupled in series with the expiring accumulators on the car, or 
a complete set may be secured to do the work alone. Failing 
this, you may have the good luck to get recharged from the 
generating plant of some large private installation. 

The current for recharging may be obtained from a suitable 
dynamo (either directly or through an electric lighting sys¬ 
tem) or from a primary battery. 

Recharging from a Strange Supply. 

If the recharging is to be done from a dynamo constructed 
for the purpose, or from a specially-designed switchboard 
worked on the local electric lighting system, the job will be 
simple enough. But if you want to charge up from a strange 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


i:g 

supply, the first thing to do is to inquire whether it is a con¬ 
tinuous or an alternating current, and what is the voltage. 
We will suppose the current to be continuous, and of no volts. 

The charging rate should be marked on the battery case. 
Usually it will not be over two amperes, but this may gener¬ 
ally be exceeded by fifty per cent, if time is short. A safe 
charging rate may generally be found by dividing the ampere 
hourage of the battery by io. A 16 c. p. (candle power) lamp 
will pass about half an ampere, and a 32 c. p. lamp will pass 
about one ampere, so a switch controlling four of the former 
or two of the latter lamps should be found. Two of the for¬ 
mer or one of the latter will be better if the time can be af- 


RtTURH •> MAIN IROM t AMPS 



Fig. 1.—Charging from Ordinary Switch, Open. 

forded, as slow charging at a low amperage is best for the bat¬ 
tery, and conduces to long running. A six 16 c. p. or three 32 
c. p. lamp switch may be used if one is in a hurry. The lamps 
are generally marked with their candle-power and can be dis¬ 
connected from their sockets by simple twisting and with¬ 
drawing action. 

The switch must be put into the off position (which will 
put the lamps out, so have another light handy), and must be 
kept in this position during the whole process. See Fig. I. 
If the switch were closed it would short circuit the battery; 
and, besides wasting a lot of current, would damage the plates. 





















AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


117 


Pole Finding. 

As charging is opposite to working, the positive pole of the 
charging apparatus must be coupled up to the positive pole of 
the accumulator, during charging. To find which pole is 
which in the switch, unscrew the cover, and connect separate 
wires to the terminals. Now take a slip of pole-finding paper, 
wet it thoroughly, and lay the free ends of the two wires on it, 
about half an inch apart. The paper will usually turn red around 
the end of the negative wire, but read the directions on the 
packet of papers as they do not all work alike. 

If you have no pole-finding paper, drop a little vinegar into 
a glass of water, and hold the ends of the wires about *4 ‘ m - 


M/UN LEAO 



INCANDESCENT LAMP. 


TUMBLER SWITCH.SHUT 


ACCUMULATOR 

Fig. 2.—Charging from Ordinary Switch, Shut. 


apart in the water thus acidulated. Bubbles will be seen ris¬ 
ing from the end of the negative wire. Bubbles may come 
from both wires, but if so, they will come faster from one 
(the negative) than from the other. 

The two wires can now be coupled up to the terminals of 
similar polarity respectively on the battery; and as soon as the 
circuit is completed by .so doing, the lamps will light up again. 

Or one of the wires leading to the switch may be severed, 
and the ends thus made be connected to the terminals, pos¬ 
itive to positive and negative to negative, as before. (Fig. 2.) 
This allows the switch to be used in the ordinary way; but, 
of course, the battery will not be charging when the switch 
is “oft.” 





























118 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


Instead of coupling up to a switch, one may employ an 
adapter. This is a fitting for attaching to a lamp socket in 
place of the lamp. The displaced lamp should be fitted into 
a socket comprised in the adapter, and the polarity of the wires 
having been ascertained, the positive wire is coupled to the 
positive terminal of the accumulator, and the negative to the 
negative, as before. 

With a current of more than no volts, the number of 16 
c. p. lamps should be increased, about in the proportion of one 
lamp to thirty volts. If the lighting system is worked on an 
alternating current, it will be necessary to employ a recti¬ 
fier to transform the current into a continuous one. Some of the 
charging dynamos are made to be driven by water pressure 
from the house supply. 

Charging from a Primary Battery. 

But where neither electric lighting nor water is laid on to 



the house, one can use a large primary battery. When em¬ 
ploying this system an ammeter should be introduced into the 
circuit; and the zincs should be let down into the liquid just 
so far that the required number of amperes is shown on the 
meter. The zincs should be lowered from time to time to keep 
up the number of amperes. Instead of moving the zincs, a 
small resistance may be introduced into the circuit and 
adjusted as required. Some of these primary batteries should 








































AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


119 


be very carefully handled, as the liquids employed therein are 
highly corrosive. They require replenishing from time to time, 
and the zincs should be entirely withdrawn while the battery 
is not in use. 

Whatever system of charging is adopted, the vent plugs 
should be removed from the accumulators, to allow free escape 
of the generated gases, during the process. The time occupied 
in charging naturally varies, but six hours to eight hours may 
be taken as an average. The battery should be disconnected 
soon after the electrolyte begins to bubble, and the voltmeter 
should then show a reading of at least 4.4. Sometimes it may 
show as much as 5.0, but the pressure will soon drop to an 
orthodox level when the accumulator is put to work. Wipe 
the case quite dry, vaseline the terminals, and replace the vent 
plugs before returning the battery to its position in the car. 

Water Circulation. 

A few hints may be given here on the subject of circulation. 
If the pump is driven by frictional contact with the flywheel, 
the spring should be adjusted so that it will just prevent slip¬ 
ping in the drive; greater tension will only have the effect of 
wearing out the bearings without any improved result. If it 
is suspected that the water is not circulating properly, one of 
the upper connections may be opened, when, if the water 
spurts out, it may be concluded that the circulation is in action. 
Some cars are now fitted with a manometer, which indicates 
the circulation of the water visibly. When one has become 
accustomed to a particular car, the condition of the circulation 
can be inferred from the temperatures of the inlet and outlet 
water pipes, as tested by the hand. If the water is not circu¬ 
lating satisfactorily the trouble will almost certainly arise 
from the pump. This should be taken to pieces and thor¬ 
oughly cleaned, and any defect that may be found should be 
remedied as far as possible. 

If the water is boiling:, and one wishes to replace it with 
cold, the operation should be performed gradually. Do not 
simply run off the boiling water and then fill up with cold, 


120 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


but make the change in easy stages. The advice given else¬ 
where to empty the circulating tank after each run in cold 
weather will bear repeating, but the risk of freezing may be 
reduced by mixing glycerine with the water in the proportion 
of one of the former to two or three of the latter (or some 
other anti-freezing mixture). Sometimes the pipes will be¬ 
come furred, and the cooling effect of the water thereby re¬ 
duced, by reason both of the diminished capacity for water 
and the increased thickness of the containing walls. The fur 
may be dissolved by introducing a quantity of some strong 
alkali, such as caustic soda, into the cooling water. Two or 
three applications may be made until the water comes away 
practically clean. 

If one of the pipes break, a temporary repair may be. 
effected by slipping a length of rubber tubing over the broken 
ends, and binding tightly with wire. If the pipe has broken 
off close to one end, a reunion can sometimes be effected by 
tapering down the end of the pipe and somewhat enlarging 
the hole it ought to communicate with. The end of the pipe 
is then forced into the hole and tied in position, and the joint 
completed with red lead and insulating tape. This is a rather 
difficult repair, and should be superseded by a workshop job 
as soon as possible. 

The Care of Tires. 

One of the great advantages of pneumatic tires is that their 
strength of spring can be adjusted to the work they have to 
do, and they should be inflated to such a pressure that they 
will give only slightly when they rest under the weight of 
the car and passengers. So long as these conditions continue 
all is well. Occasional reinflation may be necessary. A speedy 
deflation demands instant attention. Pneumatic tires cost 
quite enough while doing their work, but to drive a car with a 
deflated tire is ruinous. 

Directly a tire goes down the car should be stopped, and 
the cause ascertained. In case of doubt, the first thing to do 
is to reinflate, and then ascertain if the valve is leaking, by 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


121 


placing a film of moisture over the orifice at the exposed end. 
If this is found to be the seat of the trouble, the valve should 
be tightened up or repaired, as the case may require. But 
unless the valve can be dealt with from the outside, the next 
step is to jack up the wheel and clean the outside of the tire 
cover. Then the tire must be completely deflated, when it may 
be opened. 

Removing the Cover. 

The nuts holding down the valve, and the security bolts, 
must be screwed nearly off, and the valve and bolts pushed 
well back into the tire. The side of the cover nearer to you 
should then be pressed away from you all round the wheel, so 
as to unstick the edge, bead, or rib of the cover from the edge 
of the rim. Now take two tire levers and thrust them down 
between the edges of the cover and rim, about nine inches 
apart. Do not push the levers too far in or they may damage 
the air tube. Press down the outer ends of the levers, so as to 
raise the edge of the cover above the edge of the rim. If you 
have a helper, let him insert a third lever, about nine inches 
beyond the second, and pull it down like the others. But if you 
are alone on the job, pull the first lever down to the vertical 
and secure it by a loop to one of the spokes. The loop should 
be put around the spoke before pulling the lever down. Hav¬ 
ing secured the first lever, move the second further along and 
pull it down again. Quite a number of special tire levers have 
been introduced, some of which are much easier to manipulate 
than the ordinary bar levers. Repeat the levering until a good 
portion of the cover has been pried over the edge of the rim; 
the rest can be worked out by hand. The valve may now be 
completely removed from the rim, and the air tube withdrawn 
from the cover. 

It may be that there is a leak between the head of die valve 
and the air tube, and this may generally be cured by tighten¬ 
ing the nut which secures the valve to the tube. 

In cleaning the cover, however, one may have come across; 
a cut, or the head of a nail, or other interesting object, indicat- 


122 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


ing a puncture, and the interior of the cover should be care¬ 
fully examined to see if any nails or the like are projecting 
through the inner surface, and also to see whether any parts 
of the lining are discolored by the penetration of wet through 
cuts in the rubber. Wet rots the canvas very quickly, and 
such spots should be treated both from without and from 
within. 

Advantage of Spare Tubes. 

Repairing a puncture in a motor car tire is a much more 
serious affair than dealing with a similar trouble in a bicycle 
tire; and, even with light car tires, unless the patching process 
is very carefully and patiently carried out, the result will not 
be satisfactory. Hence it is much better to carry one or two 
spare tubes, and insert one of these, than to attempt to execute 
a repair by the roadside. 

Vulcanized Tire Repairs. 

The unsatisfactory results too frequently attaching to 
attempts to repair motor car tires by the ordinary patching 
system have led to the introduction of small vulcanizing plants, 
some of which are portable enough to be carried on a car, and 
indeed are specially constructed with a view to this. The 
system differs essentially from patching, in that the damaged 
part is remade instead of merely repaired. In the case of a 
punctured air tube, the rubber round the hole is cut away so 
as to form a beveled or concave seating extending right 
through the wall of the tube. This gives a fresh surface of 
large area. The cutting may be effected by gouging, or by 
folding the tube so as to bring the puncture to a corner, and 
then snipping off the corner with a pair of sharp scissors. The 
tool should be wetted, as rubber cuts much more easily when 
wet than when dry. The fresh surface is then roughened by 
rubbing with sandpaper or a small rasp to facilitate penetra¬ 
tion by the flux, which is next applied thereto. This flux is a 
solution of raw rubber mixed with sulphur and other ingredi¬ 
ents, When the first coat of flux becomes sticky, a second 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 123 

may be applied, and this should also be allowed to reach the 
“tacky” stage before the next operation is proceeded with. 

It is convenient while doing this part of the work to tie the 
air tube down flat, as, for example, across the top of a wheel 
with a sound tire. 

1 he next thing to do is to fill up the enlarged hole with rub¬ 
ber compound, which is a similar material to the flux, but in 
a plastic or putty-like state. It is well to warm the compound, 
as by dabbing it on the vulcanizer, before kneading it into 
place. The compound should be pressed well in, and rather 
more than enough applied. The surplus should be trimmed 
off with a wet, sharp knife, great care being taken not to cut 
the tube in so doing. 

A typical apparatus consists of a small brass boiler with 
vertical fire tubes. One side of the boiler is made flat to adapt 
it to the vulcanizing of air tubes; the opposite side is concaved 
to suit the contour of the outer surface of the purchaser’s tire 
covers. The water is filled into the boiler through an orifice 
at the top until it runs out at the blow-off cock, which also 
forms part of the steam pressure gauge on the boiler. The 
furnace consists of a cylindrical alcohol lamp. The spirit is 
soaked up by cotton-wool located in the cylinder under a wire 
gauze burning surface. The lamp telescopes into the lower 
part of the boiler, and the heat can be regulated by pushing in 
and drawing out a sliding sleeve or extinguisher to a greater 
or less extent. A detachable metal arm is secured to the upper 
part of the boiler, and forms a handle by which the vulcanizer 
can be moved about. The bent outer end of the arm forms a 
bracket, and carries a screw between the end of which and the 
flat surface of the boiler the air tube is gripped during the vul¬ 
canizing process. A metal plate and a block of wood or vul¬ 
canized fiber are introduced between the point of the screw 
and the air tube. The vulcanizer is fitted with a socket where¬ 
by it can be mounted on the rear light lamp-bracket when 
repairing air tubes, and with a detachable chain device where¬ 
by it may be secured directly to the wheel in the case of repair¬ 
ing a cut cover. 


124 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


It should be clearly understood that the boiler is employed 
simply because it provides the most convenient method for 
securing the necessary heat. There is no magic in the heat 
being produced by steam. Further, the steam pressure has 
nothing to do with the pressure exerted on the tube or cover 
under repair. The pressure of the steam is merely useful as 
indicating in a convenient manner certain temperatures corre¬ 
sponding thereto. As it takes some ten or fifteen minutes to 
raise cold water to the necessary steam pressure of 5° lbs. 
to the square inch (corresponding to a good vulcanizing tem¬ 
perature of about 281° F.), it is advisable to start the boiler 
before preparing the punctured part of the air tube, and also 
to use warm water (as from the radiator) instead of cold. 

The injured tube having been treated as above described, 
and the indicator on the boiler showing 50 lbs. pressure, a 
piece of tissue paper or linen, rather larger than the flat sur¬ 
face of the boiler, is laid on the part of the tube, which is then 
pressed flat against the boiler by means of the screw and 
plates. The screw should be turned by the fingers only; this 
will give sufficient pressure. The paper or linen prevents the 
rubber compound sticking to the surface of the boiler. The 
wood or fiber plate should not be so large as to reach and 
pinch the edges of the air tube. If the wound is a large one, 
instead of a mere puncture, it should be treated in a similar 
way; but it is then as well to insert a piece of tissue paper in 
the air tube, so that the repaired part shall not stick to the 
opposite wall when vulcanized. After about a quarter of an 
hour the sulphur will be thoroughly melted, and the raw rub¬ 
ber compound thereby vulcanized. 

The tube may now be removed from the vulcanizer, and if 
the thumb-nail be dug into the repaired part, the impression 
should quickly disappear when the nail is removed, otherwise 
the vulcanizing should be carried on for a few minutes longer. 
The time varies with the thickness of the article being treated, 
not with the size of the surface. A gash will take no longer 
to vulcanize than a puncture, but a thick tube should be given 
about twenty minutes instead of fifteen. 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


125 


Cuts in the cover are treated substantially in the same way. 
The rubber should be cut away around the injury right down 
to the first canvas, and at such an angle as to expose a large 
surface of fresh rubber around it. It is then rasped and treated 
with one or two coats of flux, and after the last of these has 
become tacky, the hole is filled up with compound, well pressed 
in with a roller tool provided for the purpose, and pared off 
flush with the surface of the cover. Meanwhile the vulcanizer 
has been getting up steam on the bracket. The damaged por¬ 
tion of the cover is brought to the back or front of the wheel. 
The injury is covered with paper or linen, and the vulcanizer 
is secured to the wheel, with the concave side to the injury, by 
means of a chain which should be screwed up fairly tight, but 
not so as to indent the cover materially. Owing to the greater 
thickness of the material, the heat will have some difficulty in 
penetrating it. A pressure of 60 lbs. may be used for about 
fifteen minutes, twenty minutes being necessary for 50 lbs. 
The cover should be perfectly dry, and the dryness may gen¬ 
erally be obtained by putting the vulcanizer in position before 
the required pressure has been obtained, so that the moisture 
may be evaporated before the 50 lbs. or 60 lbs. has been 
reached, and before the vulcanizing has commenced. A pad of 
cloth should be placed temporarily between the cover and vul¬ 
canizer to let the damp vapor escape. Special adapters can 
be obtained for covers of special formation. 

The above described vulcanizer weighs about 10 lbs. More 
elaborate ones are made for garage use, and are provided with 
means for repairing burst covers. In the case of an ordinary 
burst, the cover should be turned inside out, and a large piece 
of the lining should be cut away right across the inside of 
the cover. Then the material should be cut away in layers 
extending to the depth of one canvas each. The portions of 
canvas cut away should be of rectangular form with rounded 
corners, and each layer should measure about one and a half 
to two inches less in length and breadth than the one previ¬ 
ously removed. The last layer of canvas should not be cut 
out, but should be left bare to the extent of about one inch all 


126 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


round the burst. During this operation the portions of fresh 
canvas should be cut to the shapes of those detached, and satu¬ 
rated with the flux, successive coats being applied and allowed 
to get “tacky” until a substantial film of rubber is left on both 
the surfaces. The steps cut in the cover should be coated with 
flux in the same way. The cover is now turned back again 
outside out. The wound in the tread is treated as before 
described, and the patches of canvas are laid in position, and 
pressed down with the roller. The last piece should be con¬ 
siderably larger than the others, and as it is to replace the 
damaged portion of the lining, it should be solutioned on the 
back only. When this is in place, the cover is put in the vul- 
canizer between two properly shaped steam containers, one 
inside and the other out, and it is bound down tightly to the 
inner container by a strip of webbing wound on spirally. The 
parts are gripped thus, and a pressure of 60 lbs. is kept up for 
about twenty-five minutes, or longer if necessary. 

Air tubes may be joined, and other jobs done in a substan¬ 
tially similar manner. 

Repairs by Patching. 

In the absence of a sound spare tube and of a vulcanizer, 
the patching process will have to be resorted to. The air tube 
should be examined for one or more punctures. If the trouble 
cannot be ascertained by mere inspection, the tube should be 
reinflated lightly, and immersed and stretched, bit by bit, in 
a large bowl of water, when the seat of the injury will be dis¬ 
covered by a stream of bubbles issuing from the puncture. 

Draw a ring on the tube, concentrically with the puncture, 
with an indelible ink pencil. As this is to serve as a guide to 
the position of the hole during the subsequent operations, it 
should be rather larger than the patch to be applied. The sur¬ 
face around the puncture and within the ring must be thorough¬ 
ly cleaned. Gasolene is very useful for cleaning off the sulphur 
and preparing the rubber for the solution. A block of sulphur 
is also handy; but the usual process is to wrap a piece of glass 
paper round something hard, such as the chalk case, and rub 


'AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


127 


the tube clean around the seat of the injury. When all the 
sulphur has been removed, a thin film of indiarubber solu¬ 
tion should be spread on the prepared surface. The area of 
the film should be sufficient to extend well beyond the 
edges of the patch to be applied. This film should be allowed 
five or ten minutes to dry, and another spread over it, and 
subsequently a third. If the films of solution are exposed to 
the direct rays of the sun they will dry quickly. 

One of the rubber patches in the repair outfit should be 
chosen according to its size, and this also should be cleaned 
and given three coats of solution, each being thoroughly dry 
before the next is applied. If the patch shows an irresistible 
desire to curl up, encourage it to embrace a fixed rod of suit¬ 
able diameter, so that it shall not roll about and get covered 
with dust, etc. The patch should then be carefully laid on 
the solutioned part of the tube, which should be quite empty 
of air at the time. The patch should be firmly pressed down 
on the tube, the pressure being applied from the center out¬ 
ward, so as to drive out any bubbles of air that may have 
been caught between the patch and the tube. The patched 
portion of the tube may be laid between two flat plates and 
moderate pressure applied, as by a vise or a weight. When 
the patch is well set, it should be further secured by a much 
larger canvas-backed patch solutioned on in a similar way, the 
canvas being outward. 

If the puncturing object has penetrated right through the 
tube, of course both holes will require mending ; and a second 
hole should always be carefully looked for. Sometimes one 
puncturing object will make quite a lot of holes close to¬ 
gether. Try to cover them all with one big patch. 

Treating the Cover. 

Outwardly, the hole in the rubber should be carefully probed 
and freed from grit, and then cleaned with gasolene, benzene, 
or the like solvent. The surfaces of the hole should next be 
solutioned with two or three coats, and the wound bound up 
until the solution has set. If the hole gapes, it should be 


128 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


plugged with some of the stopping preparations sold for the 
purpose. Inwardly, the weak place in the fabric should be 
reinforced by a piece of prepared canvas extending not only 
the full width of the cover, but a short distance up the out¬ 
side as well, so as to be gripped by the rim. This should be 
carefully solutioned in place. The canvas should be cleaned 
with gasolene before applying the coats of solution, plenty 
of which will be necessary. The cover ought not really to be 
used for some twelve hours or more, hence the advantage of 
carrying a spare cover; but if none has been brought, the 
damaged part should be relieved from strain either by lacing a 
gaiter round the cover and felloe of the wheel; or, if this 
cannot be done, a short canvas sleeve may be sewn around the 
air tube. This sleeve should be large enough to allow the tube 
to assume its ordinary diameter, but small enough to relieve 
the cover from strain. Care must be taken not to prick the 
tube when sewing the sleeve. Actual bursts in the cover must 
be treated in the same way, but on a larger scale. If a gaiter is 
employed, it should be laced on while the tire is only lightly 
inflated. When the inflation is completed, the extra pressure 
will cause the gaiter to set very closely, as it should do. 

Stripping the Wheel. 

In case the cover has to be completely detached from the 
wheel, pull down the bolts near the top of the wheel, and in¬ 
sert two levers, about nine inches apart, under the remaining 
edge of the cover. Press on the outer ends of the levers, and 
then push them forward, so that they bridge across the rim, 
resting on both edges thereof. The edge of the cover at the 
top of the wheel will now lie on the levers, and may be drawn 
along them across, and over the edge of, the rim. Pressing 
down the handles of the levers will assist the operation. When 
the cover is thus released from the top of the rim, it may be 
easily withdrawn from the rest thereof. 

Before reinstating the tire, the interior of the cover should 
be liberally dusted with powdered talc, generally called French 
chalk. Blacklead or grate polish (or, more properly, graphite) 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


129 


forms an efficient, though dirty, substitute for the chalk. All 
solutioned parts in the cover and on the tube should receive 
special allowances. Sometimes a quantity of grit and dirt 
will accumulate in the cover; this may be picked up with a 
small lump of soft clay or putty. 

While the rim is bare, take the opportunity of seeing that 
it is clean, free from dents and rust, and well covered with 
enamel. If there are any bare or rusty patches, and it is not 
convenient to enamel them at the moment, give them a wipe 
with a greasy cloth, as rust rots canvas quickly. The grease 
must be cleaned off thoroughly before applying the enamel. 

Replacing the Tire. 

If the bed of the rim is uneven, see that it is covered with 
an evenly-laid tight tape. Straighten or replace any security 
bolts that have got bent, and push them up from the bed. 
Put a few pumpfuls of air into the inner tube, and place in 
position in the cover, while the cover is still off the rim. Be 
very careful to get the valve stem comfortably into the notches 
in the cover. Turn the wheel round until the valve hole is at 
the top. Now very carefully place the tire on the upper part 
of the wheel, so that the further edge goes into the rim, and 
the valve can be put into its hole without straining to right or 
left. Work the further edge of the cover into place under 
the edge of the rim and under the heads of the bolts. Much 
of this can be done by hand; the levers must be used for the 
rest. 

The parts are now in the position they occupy when the 
cover has been opened merely, not entirely detached from the 
wheel. Supposing the air tube has been withdrawn, and is to 
be replaced, the stem of the valve should be passed into its hole 
and the valve completed, except for tightening the outside 
locknut; and the heads of the bolts should be pressed dow T n 
into the bed of the rim. The tube should be slightly inflated 
and tucked into the cover, care being taken not to twist it, or 
to disturb any of the patches. Pass the hand round between 


130 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


the air tube and the rim to make sure that the tube is not 
caught by any of the bolt heads. 

The valve and bolts are next pushed up again, and the other 
edge of the cover is got back into the rim like the first. The 
bead may be helped under the edge of the rim by prodding it 
with the end of the tire lever; but if it is very obstinate it 
probably means that the air tube has got down between the 
edges of the cover. If this is suspected, it is much the best to 
open the tire again, and then reinsert the second edge of the 
cover, as a nipped tube spells disaster, none the less deadly 
because deferred. A little judgment is required to pump the 
air tube tight enough to prevent nipping in this way, and yet 
not so tight as to prevent the second edge of the cover being 
got back into place. If the security bolts can be moved up 
and down in their holes without difficulty, it generally shows 
that the tube is not being nipped. When satisfied on this 
point, you may tighten up the nuts of the valve and bolts, and 
put a little more air into the tire. 

The wheel should now be slowly rotated, and the tire pulled 
and pushed laterally, and pommeled well with the fist. This 
enourages the parts to assume their proper positions. After 
a due amount of exercise of this sort, the tire may be fully 
inflated, and the nuts of the valve and security bolts given a 
final turn. 

Miscellaneous Hints. 

After running a few miles, go over these nuts again. It is 
important to have them tight to prevent the tire creeping or 
wrenching or blowing off, and to prevent water getting in. 
Turning corners too fast is a frequent cause of the tires com¬ 
ing off if the bolts are loose; and if the tires are too weak or 
the speed too high, the cover may split along at the edge of 
the rim. Under such circumstances a temporary repair may 
perhaps be made with a gaiter, etc., but a permanent repair 
is often impossible. Tires stand best when the inflation is 
kept well up to the mark. If the tire gets flabby it will get 
pinched between the rim and the ground, will let the water 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


131 


in, will wear out rapidly, will be more likely to sideslip and 
jWill waste power. 

Cheeseparing does not pay with tires. Have the covers re¬ 
treaded as soon as they are worn enough to show the first 
ply of canvas. Do not try to fit the tires of one maker to 
the rims of another, unless the tire maker approves. Have 
all difficult repairs done, or completed, as the case may be, by 
the manufacturers of the tire. 

In case a tire is damaged beyond repair, one may remove 
the air tube and stuff the cover with hay or any other suitable 
material that may be at hand; or one may lay some thick 
coils of rope round the rim. But these are expedients only 
to be resorted to when “in extremis.” 

If the car is to be put away for any length of time, it is 
best to jack up all the wheels and to inflate the tires only 
hard enough to keep them in shape. They should be wiped 
over occasionally with a rag dipped in warm water, and should 
be kneaded to maintain their suppleness. 

As to solid tires, little advice can be given, except that 
they should be examined with a view to ascertain that their 
means of attachment are secure. Anv large cuts should be 
picked out and mended as above described in relation to the 
covers of pneumatic tires. 

Care of a Car on Tour—The man who starts on tour starts 
with the risk of trouble—unless his outfit is complete, and it is 
with a view of eliminating all sources of worry that one can lay 
to one’s own charge that the following paragraphs deal with 
the necessary preliminary preparations to forestall avoidable 
mischance. 

First, says a noted European motorist, the tires should be 
taken from their wheels, the rims sandpapered inside, and the 
bed of the rim enameled with some quick-drying enamel. 
Next the heads of the security bolts should be examined as to 
their covering. They will generally be found a mass of 
crumpled leather. Replace with repairing canvas by cutting 
two pieces to the required shape, snip a small hole in one of 
the pieces for the stem to pass through, and then press the 


132 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


solutioned sides together and trim up with scissors. Now rub 
the inside of the cover round with a duster, run your hand 
round critically for any bits of flint or other puncturing ma¬ 
terial that may lurk therein, and look for any signs of crack¬ 
ing or chafing in the lining canvas. If you find a suspicious- 
looking place, put a patch on, for there is nothing worse for 
your tube than an apparently insignificant weakness of the 
cover. The tube seems to chafe through at such spots, even 
when there is no actual perforation of the cover further than 
perhaps one or two layers of the inner canvas. In replacing 
the covers use plenty of French chalk, without overdosing, 
or you will find it in cakes when you take them off the next 
time; chalk your tube, and put a little air in before you get 
the last edge of your cover off. Blow them up hard ; they stand 
a better chance of retaining the air, especially if there are 
anv patches on the tubes. 

V X 

Engine Treatment. 

Next, you must put your engine in proper trim, and to do 
this thoroughly will take both time and patience, to say noth¬ 
ing of a suit of overalls, and, if possible, an inspection pit. 
There will no doubt be doors of some sort to the crank-case, 
so that you can discover whether there is too much play in 
the connecting rod brasses (bushings). Put the particular 
crank you are investigating on the bottom dead center, grasp 
the connecting rod, and see if you can move it up and down; 
if there is any play, say 1/32 inch, the brass had better be 
taken up. 

It will depend on the position of the inspection door how 
you go about this job. If you have one on each side, it will 
be easy to get a spanner to the nuts on the big end; drop the 
cap and the bottom brass, then push the piston and rod up out 
of the way, and pull the top brass out of its seating. Now 
place the brasses on the crank pin, hold them together with 
thumb and finger, and see how much shake there really is. 
Let this be your guide in filing the edges of the brasses, to 
do which it is best to lay the smooth file on the bench and 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


133 


rub the brass to and fro upon it with equal and steady pres¬ 
sure, unless you are an expert hand with the file. Keep trying 
the brasses on the pin, and reduce each an equal amount as 
far as possible, until the amount of shake is only just discerni¬ 
ble. You may then find it necessary to file something off the 
cap before reassembling the parts, or you may have to put a 
piece of tin or zinc under one of the brasses, but whichever 
commends itself to you, be sure the cap really grips the brasses 

when the nuts are tightened up, and that there is no space be- 

• 

tween them. When all is tight, give your engine a turn by 
hand to see there is no binding. If there is, you have taken 
too much off the edges of the brasses, and will have to insert 
a bit of tin, but with reasonable care this should not happen. 
Then, finding all serene, you go on to the next big end, and 
repeat the process. These directions do not apply to the 
usual type of single-cylinder engines, but are applicable to 
Darracqs. 

Valve Treatment. 

Valves will now need attention, and for grinding in there 
are a number of things advertised and recommended. Knife 
polish and water give good results, assisted by a carpenter’s 
brace with a screwdriver fitted in the chuck. In case of bad 
pitting, a skim-up in the lathe saves much labor, and when 
done be sure there is 1/32 inch clearance between the ex¬ 
haust valve stem and its lifter; if not, make it so. There is no 
need to get a bearing all over the valve seating. A line of 
bright contact as wide as a thread is sufficient, but it must go 
all round the valve. If there is any emery lying about, wash 
it out with gasolene. It is a good plan to put a piece of waste 
in the cylinder port while grinding operations are going on. 
When all the valves are ground in, give the engine another 
turn round, and see they all have the proper lift. You may 
find a worn cam and a valve that is opening late and shutting 
early in consequence. 

It would be well at this juncture to ascertain the accuracy 
of your timing, by turning the engine and checking the rela- 


134 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


tive positions of the exhaust valves and pistons. Where there 
is a compression cock, push a piece of steel wire, such as a 
bicycle spoke or a knitting needle, through the orifice, and 
feel the piston-head as it rises on the exhaust stroke. The 
valve should shut when the piston is at the highest point. 
If you have mechanical inlet valves, they should commence to 
open at the precise moment, or immediately after, the exhaust 
valves close—that is, when the piston is just at its highest point. 

Ignition. 

In overhauling the ignition apparatus, it is well to begin 
at the source of your current, which will most likely be in the 
form of accumulators or storage cells. Disconnect them from 
the primary wires, and if they have transparent cases, look at 
the plates, which should be alternately plum color and gray¬ 
ish blue. See if any particles threaten to bridge the space be¬ 
tween positive and negative plates, and if there is much sedi¬ 
ment in the bottom. These are both prolific causes of short 
circuit and untimely failure of your supply of electricity. If 
all appears well within, test them with a testing lamp of the 
proper capacity. Four volts two amperes is about the right 
thing, and if such a lamp burns brightly fof several minutes 
without diminishing in intensity, you can conclude the battery 
is all right. If you use a voltmeter, it should show over four 
volts, but under no circumstances use an ammeter, or short 
the terminals with a file. In one case you will fuse the wir¬ 
ing of the instrument, and in the other you stand a good chance 
of buckling a plate or loosening some of the paste from which 
the plates are built up. Before connecting the wires again, 
see that the terminals are bright and clean, also the ends of 
the wires; tighten up the nuts with a pair of pliers, and smear 
with vaseline, or, better still, wrap the lot up in rubber tape. 
The casual screwdriver or what-not falling across the termi¬ 
nals will then fail to bring about your undoing. ' 

Adjustment of the Coil. 

One of the battery wires will lead to the switch, thence 
to the frame, where it should make a good and sound con- 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


135 


nection; the other goes to the coil, where it should connect 
to the primary terminal, generally marked P. The current 
supplied by this wire now traverses the primary winding of 
the coil, and comes out at the terminal marked M or T—motor 
or trembler. The wire from this terminal goes to the con¬ 
tact breaker, and is connected to the blade thereof in the case 
of a wipe contact, or to the platinum-pointed screw in the case 
of the make-and-break type. The make-and-break contact will 
probably require some attention in the shape of filing up or 
cleaning the platinum rivets on the blade and adjustable screw. 
Take care when reassembling that the distance between blade 
and screw is equal in each case—i. e., where there are two or 
more cylinders—and that the platinums come hard together, 
backed up by the spring of the blade. Good flat contacts 
should be filed, or there will be misfiring when you get going. 

See that all the blades are the same length; when they are 
unequal, as is often the case, the cylinders do not all fire in 
the same relative position of the crank, and loss of power and 
irregularity in running are the result. The wipe form of con¬ 
tact requires very little attention, but it is well to see that the 
brass segment is not worn below the fiber, or there will be 
sparking. The remedy is to turn it up again in the lathe, until 
the brass is level with the fiber. Now see that your high ten¬ 
sion wires are connected properly at the coil, and when satis¬ 
fied on that point, take out your plugs and lay them on the 
cylinder cover; connect up, swatch on, and turn them on the 
round by hand until the trembler on the coil buzzes. If there 
is much sparking, these contacts will have to be filed up and 
the screw adjusted, to give as high a note as possible with¬ 
out sticking. Switch on and off rapidly, and see the trembler 
responds every time, and that there is a spark at the plug 
simultaneously. When you are satisfied on these points, you 
can replace the plugs and turn your attention to the carbureter. 

Examine the Carbureter. 

Carbureters are of so many different patterns that it is dif¬ 
ficult to prescribe any hard-and-fast rule for dealing with 


136 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


them. Generally speaking, one should examine the float to be 
certain that the gasolene does not get inside, and if it has 
been standing some time immersed in the spirit, a shake will 
determine if it is empty or not; then take out the needle valve 
and turn on the gasolene. It should flow freely into the float 
chamber; if not, clean out your supply pipe and gauzes. The 
jet may be cleared with a strand of copper wire, such as is 
found in your electrical outfit, or in the case of the Longue- 
mare type, the spraying cone can be removed and the chan¬ 
nels cleared with a penknife. Do not clean them too vigor¬ 
ously, or you may remove some of the metal and cause the 
spray to deliver too much gasolene. It may be advisable to 
grind your needle valve with a touch of knife polish, finishing 
with some pressure but without emery. This should show a 
bright appearance when the cone of the valve fits the seat, and 
when the brightness extends all round the valve will be quite 
tight. In order to keep the valve upright during this process, 
it is best to put the cover on the float chamber and secure 
with two or three screws. 

The Change Speed Gear. 

By moving the gear-changing lever into the several notches 
of the quadrant, you will see whether the wheels are in line 
with one another, and should they be otherwise there will no 
doubt be some form of adjustment by which you can make 
them so, and perhaps at the same time neutralize to some 
extent the wear that has taken place on the tooth sides by set¬ 
ting the sliding sleeve further over. This will require some 
thinking out, as in some cases the speeds are divided up in 
pairs, and the remedy for one pair will be at the expense of 
the other. 

In case of three-speed gear with direct drive on top speed, the 
second speed can be set over by deepening the recesses in the 
positive clutch which locks the divided shaft together, but this 
is a last resort when the gears are nearly at the end of their 
tether. The shafts should be tried for wear in the bearings, 
and, if considerable, the brasses must be taken up in a similar 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


137 


manner as explained for the connecting-rod brasses; or, in 
the case of plain bushes, they should be renewed. 

Look After the Chains, If Any. 

Chains should be soaked in kerosene, dried, and immersed 
in hot tallow. If considerably stretched they should be re¬ 
newed. It is hopeless to endeavor to remedy a stretched chain 
by means of the adjusting rod. This is only useful up to a 
certain point, say to the extent of one link, but after that link 
has been taken out the difference in pitch between the chain 
and the sprocket becomes too great for the chain to run prop¬ 
erly, and it is forced to ride up the teeth in its endeavor to 
find its proper pitch circle. At this stage it will save much 
trouble to invest in a new pair of chains. 

Brakes and Bearings. 

Give your brakes some attention, and in effecting adjust¬ 
ments be careful to take up equally on each side, or the car 
will swerve when they are applied, but if you have some com¬ 
pensating device this precaution is unnecessary. The wheels 
should be separately jacked up, and if showing signs of shake 
in the bearings should be adjusted, but always leaving just a 
trifle of play. The axle-caps should be filled with grease before 
screwing on. By giving the wheel a spin, the presence of a 
broken ball may be detected, and, if found, removed, and re¬ 
placed by one of exactly the same size. If it is impossible to 
procure one which your calipers assure, you is tl e same as the 
others, it is far better to leave one out than to put in a larger 
one, though a smaller one would not so much matter. When 
replacing the gear-box, you should adjust the countershaft 
brake, and, if necessary, replace the lining of the band. 

Attention to Steering Gear. 

See that your steering gear is all correct, and if of the direct 
type be sure the pins on the steering arm, distance rod, and 
divided axle are securely nutted and pinned. It may not be 
possible to adjust for wear, but if you have worm and sector 
or quick pitch thread and nut there should be means of ad¬ 
justment, in the first case by setting the worm deeper in gear, 


138 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


and in the second by letting up the halves of the nut. In any 
case, it is very desirable the car should go exactly in the di¬ 
rection you require it, and backlash on the steering gear is 
irritating, to say the least. 

Cleaning out the Water-circulating System. 

The water circulation can conveniently be inspected while 
you are under the car attending to the steering gear, and if you 
suspect anything faulty, disconnect the several unions, and 
wash through the radiators, pipes, tanks, and cylinder jackets 
with the hose and a good force of water. An obstinate block 
in a pipe will generally yield on the application of heat. 
Methylated spirit (wood alcohol) on a piece of waste will 
answer capitally, but the gasolene tank should be empty, or 
the refractory pipe removed to a safe distance while this oper¬ 
ation is going on. The same process may be applied to radia¬ 
tors, with the proviso that you do not carry the heating far 
enough to melt the solder. The obstruction will generally be 
found to consist of grease, or some foreign body incased in 
grease. Boiling water may be applied if you have it handy, 
and with the addition of washing soda is excellent for tanks. 
Pour it in hot, and leave for a few hours, and your tank will 
scale beautifully. 


Accessories for the Tour. 

If the readt r has attended to all the points mentioned in the 
preceding paragraphs, and has satisfied himself that things are 
correct, or, if not, has made them so according to the instruc¬ 
tions given, he is at last prepared to set out on the projected 
tour. It now behooves the would-be tourist to collect the 
necessary impedimenta, which may consist of the following 
articles: 

Spare cover, which may be wrapped in a strip or bag of 
suitable material; such bags, complete with straps, can be 
bought of many dealers. 

Spare inner tubes—two or more, having regard to the space 
available. 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 139 

Repair outfit, with an ample store of solution, patches, and 
canvas. 

A few tire gaiters or tire sleeves. The eyeleted kind re¬ 
quire woven steel cable, which is damaging to the fingers, 
though they can be laced with rawhide thongs instead. These 
thongs are most useful things to have in your repair kit, as in 
the event of a burst they can be used as a gaiter by attaching 
one end to a spoke and winding over the rim and cover in 
a spiral, and fixing the other end to the next spoke. For this 
purpose, you will want long ones (6 ft. or so), and they should 
be applied with the tire deflated; the subsequent inflating pulls 
them tight on the cover, and if they constrict the part on which 
they lie, to some extent, so much the better—they will wear 
all the longer. A tip in putting gaiters and thongs into requi¬ 
sition is to start wrapping some inches behind the burst, when 
this is in contact with the ground, so as to counteract the 
creeping tendency. 

There are a great many makes of solution on the market— 
some very good, others indifferent. One “special motor solu¬ 
tion” appears to be rubber dissolved in carbon bisulphid, and 
has an overpowering odor. Some drivers swear by it; much 
depends on the relative size of the tire to weight of car. The 
experience of others has been that the rapid evaporation of 
the solvent produces condensation of atmospheric moisture on 
the surface of the solution, which prevents the patch sticking. 
You may be certain that if your car is under-tired there will 
be constant trouble with patches. Some have found that a 
canvas patch on the back of the rubber patch, extending an 
inch or so beyond it all round, helps to keep it on, but noth¬ 
ing short of vulcanization will make a sound .job. 

Tools, etc., for the Tour. 

These may include a strong adjustable wrench; a set of 
tube spanners; a small vise to fix on mud-guard or step; a 
hack saw and half a dozen blades; a set of files (one io-inch 
flat second cut, one half-round, one square, one round, and a 
few small warding files) ; a brace and several sizes of drills, 


140 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


also a screwdriver to fit brace, and one or two center bits for 
wood; a large screwdriver; two hammers (one heavy, one 
lighter); a lifting jack to suit car axles; links of chain and 
connecting bolt; a pair of flat-nosed cutting pliers; a small 
adjustable wrench; a box of assorted nuts, bolts, and split 
pins; assorted wood screws; copper wire; rubber hose for 
pump connections: sparking plugs; insulated wire. 

Experience will dictate a fairly complete outfit, and, although 
occupying a good deal of room, such will be worth taking. 
Having filled the tanks and lubricators, strapped your baggage 
in the most convenient place, and donned your motoring gar¬ 
ments, you set out on your adventurous career. 

Stabling of a Car. 

At the end of your first day’s journey you may elect to spend 
the night at some village hotel. The chances are that you 
may not find much accommodation for the car, and here a 
sheet of waterproof canvas or a properly-made car cover 
comes in. The latter is provided with cords for fastening 
down, and is shaped roughly to the vehicle, but a plain sheet 
12 ft. square or 12 ft.xi4, or 16 ft., according to size of car, 
will do very well, and only cost half as much. Make fast all 
round; it will prevent the wind blowing it off, and also tend 
to preserve any little odds and ends you may have left lying 
in the tonneau or elsewhere from being annexed, or the lubri¬ 
cator from being turned on by meddlesome people. Before 
starting in the morning you will gauge your gasolene by dip¬ 
ping a clean stick or rod in the tank, if an indicator is not 
fitted, and estimate the mileage per gallon used on the pre¬ 
vious day. The oil reservoir should be examined, and per¬ 
haps by adjusting the carbureter and oil feeds you can ob¬ 
tain better results. As everything has just been tightened up, 
it is better to err on the generous side for the first day or two 
as regards lubrication, but if there are indications of overdos¬ 
ing this will easily be seen in looking over the car while run¬ 
ning. Half an hour devoted to going over the nuts and bolts 
which you disturbed in your overhauling will be well spent. 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 141 

Tire Repairing. 

Suppose you experience a curious bumping sensation or 
hear crackling sounds in the neighborhood of the offside driv¬ 
ing wheel, and take a cautious look back to find the tire flat 
as a pancake. On stopping the car, you will be able to tell by 
the valve stem if the tire has been down long, for if so it will 
have assumed a tangential position, owing to the creeping of 
the inner tube, and then the jack will be requisitioned, as the 
tube must be taken out bodily for repairs. You will probably 
put in a spare tube, and after dusting it with a little French 
chalk, replace the cover, inflate the tire, and drive away. But, 
on the other hand, you may be able to see the actual offender 
sticking “in flagrante delicto” from the cover in the shape of 
a horseshoe nail. Then you will merely remove a couple of 
feet of cover, fish the tube out, and put a patch on the puncture, 
not forgetting the extra canvas patch previously mentioned. 
Look out for nips in replacing the piece of cover. The whole 
repair is only a matter of minutes, because you have the advan¬ 
tage of knowing the exact location of the trouble. 

Leaking Patches. 

To take another case of deflation, we will suppose you can 
find no external evidence of puncture, and knowing the tube 
to be patched you half suspect one of the patches of having 
sprung a leak. You attach the tire-pump, and gingerly com¬ 
mence putting some air in; the tire begins to regain its rotund¬ 
ity. So it was only a leaky valve, after all. Vigorous strokes 
at the pump. Hark! a curious sibilant sound. It’s that 
confounded patch, after all. Your ear will tell you where¬ 
abouts the leak is, so only remove as much of the cover as 
will enable you conveniently to attack the job. You will very 
likely find that, although the air has burrowed a small channel 
between the patch and the tube in one place, other portions 
of the patch are holding on tenaciously. Why they do not 
stick all over alike is what most owners never can understand. 
However, while you are wondering, the folks in the tonneau 
are getting cross, so you must get to work. 


142 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


Removing Patches. 

A drop of gasolene applied with care does wonders in per¬ 
suading the patch to peel off, and afterwards in cleaning the 
surface of the tube; but do not apply the solution until you 
have well roughened the place with glass paper. Put the 
old patch away for future use, and apply a fresh patch, two 
coats of solution, spread on thinly and well rubbed in, espe¬ 
cially the first (you cannot rub the second coat hard, or the 
lot peels off), squeeze the patch and tube together as hard as 
possible with finger and thumb, beginning in the center of the 
patch and working out to the edges. You may hold a block of 
wood under the tube and beat the patch with a hammer, if 
preferred, but go gently. Some men belabor their patches 
unmercifully, and say they never come off; but judicious beat¬ 
ing is generally preferred. 

Treating a Burst. 

In the case of a burst, it is better to remove the entire cover, 
if you can spare the time. Clean out the inside with a piece 
of rag damped with gasolene, and, when dry, fix in a piece 
of thick canvas which is large enough to go right across and 
lap over the beaded edge on each side. While this is drying, 
attend to the tube as previously directed, and after replacing 
the cover and tube, inflate the tube to a slight degree and apply 
the tire gaiter. It is quite easy to remove a tire without the 
aid of a jack by rolling the wheel backward and forward. 
The procedure is as follows: Remove as much of the bead as 
you can from the side of the wheel nearest to you, and then 
take out as much tube as the circumstances will permit; then 
roll the car forward bodily, and the rest of the cover can be 
detached and the tube entirely taken out. After taking out the 
security bolts, 'with the tire lever you can get the inside bead 
over the outside lip of the rim as far as the ground, and by 
rolling the car backward a few feet the cover will be free. 

Replacing the Tire. 

In putting back the cover, reverse the process, only taking 
care the valve hole comes right with the places in the tire 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


143 


bead intended for the valve stem to pass through. If, when 
your first bead is in, you find the valve hole is not opposite the 
gaps, by rolling the car forward or backward, as the case 
may be, you can set up a creeping action in the cover that will 
bring the hole and gap in line. For instance, if the gap is to 
the right of the hole when you are repairing the right-hand 
tire, the car must be wheeled forward to effect the purpose. 
Such a repair as is indicated will not last long, and the cover 
will have to be vulcanized to be efficiently restored; but sup¬ 
posing you have no spare cover, and do not want to abandon 
your tour, a fairly good job can be made by any saddler in the 
town where you stay for the night. Get him to sew a piece of 
rawhide inside the cover, bringing the stitches through to the 
outside and herringboning over the gash so as to draw the 
lips together. If you find the canvas previously put in adheres 
firmly there is no need to take it out, but sew through the lot. 
It is a good plan to knot each stitch separately, because in that 
case if one stitch give it does not loosen the others. The diffi¬ 
culty is to get anyone to take the trouble; the remedy is to do 
it yourself. When the gash or burst was a large one some 
drivers have used a tire gaiter inside, first cutting off the eye¬ 
leted edges: but this plan has the disadvantage of spoiling a 
gaiter for outside use. It is well to put another gaiter outside 
in addition. 

Supposing the burst is not of a serious enough character 
to demand so much reinforcement, you need only stitch another 
canvas patch over the rawhide, which you have sewn in, to 
prevent chafing on the edges or threads, and the repair is com¬ 
plete. Properly done, this job will last for hundreds of miles. 
Of course, if the burst is on or near the tread, the outside 
gaiter or sleeve must be used to protect the threads from 
cutting. 

More about Tires. 

It is a good plan to sink the threads below the surface of 
the rubber carefully by cutting a slit joining the holes where 
the thread comes out and goes in at every stitch. Do not cut 
down into the canvas; you will have to exercise judgment in 


144 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


making the incisions. After making the slit, pull the thread 
tight, and the loop will disappear below the surface of the tire. 
The thread is now protected, and has also got a better hold of 
the canvas. 

If you are a real enthusiast there will always be plenty to 
do in the evening after you have dined—little adjustments of 
the running gear, and perhaps tire repairs—and provided with 
an electric lamp you can continue your labors after dark, so as 
to waste no time in the morning. Washing down should 
always be done under your own inspection, or when next you 
essay to start away the carbureter will be found full o^ 
water or the tremblers submerged. Before applying the hose, 
look round the tires, see that the wing nuts are tight, and 
stop any small cuts in the cover with some stopping material. 
If wet gets inside it will surely cause trouble. See the car 
thoroughly dried before it is put away for the night. Steer¬ 
ing joints are apt to rust up unless protected with coverings. 
The latter should be fitted to every car, as they are easy to 
make, and save no end of bother and fatigue from stiff 
steering. 

Misfiring. 

The chief complaint from which engines suffer is the fault 
of missing fire. A fruitful cause of irregular ignition is weak¬ 
ness of the accumulator, so when it occurs you will begin at 
that end of the electrical gear and satisfy yourself that all is 
well with the battery. Next have a look at the other end—the 
plugs—and then go over the ground between. Are the contact 
blades rubbing firmly on the cam? Are the tremblers on the 
coil vibrating angrily? You will find out by opening the com¬ 
pression cocks and turning the engine slowly. Suppose one 
trembler is only fluttering. You remove the contact screw 
and find it badly pitted. The rivet on the blade has a minute 
point fused on it, just opposite the part of the screw that has 
become pitted. A few strokes of a smooth file, a little adjust¬ 
ment of the contact screw, and you are rewarded with a buzz 
that can be heard some distance away. It may be a high-ten¬ 
sion wire that has touched the exhaust pipe and lost its insula- 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


145 


tion, or a low-tension wire that has chafed against a water 
pipe, or a loose terminal on the contact breaker. Sometimes the 
earth return wire gets broken where it is fastened to engine 
or frame, and then the misfiring will occur intermittently, 
first in one cylinder and then in the other, leading you a 
pretty dance until you stumble on the cause. A wipe contact 
should have ample means of return. The film of oil on the 
bearings of the second speed shaft and the other resistances 
between the little brass inset and the frame of the car are 
almost certain to interfere with a free return, so it is better 
to provide some other means of return, such as a wire attached 
to the plate on which the blades are mounted and connected 
to a nut on the engine or frame. A good plan is to fix a sup¬ 
plementary blade to rub on the center of the fiber cam so as 
to make contact on the shaft on which the cam is fixed, and 
ground the wire from this blade. 

Examine the Carbureter. 

If you are sure the ignition is all right and the missing still 
persists, suspect the carbureter. A partly blocked gasolene 
pipe will produce the symptoms, so remove the nut which 
connects the gasolene pipe, with carbureter, and try blowing 
back into the tank with the tire pump. This is the rough and 
ready method. If it fails, disconnect the pipe altogether, and 
see if it is clear. The pump will clear it if you can make a 
joint of some sort, either by removing the valve connection or 
using a bit of rubber tube, or even wrapping a piece of rubber 
strip round and wiring it in place. The obstruction may be 
in the narrow orifice below the needle valve; you can find out 
by dismantling the carbureter. There may be a particle of dirt 
in the spray nozzle, which gets carried up occasionally to the 
tiny hole that delivers the gasolene jet, and occasionally drops 
back to the bottom of the passage. Clean the jet out thor¬ 
oughly and wash through the passages with gasolene, when no 
further trouble should be experienced on the road. 


10 


146 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


PART X. 

LAYING UP A CAR. 

Laying Up a Car—When a car is to be laid up for any 
length of time care should be taken to see that it is first prop¬ 
erly prepared by a special course of treatment. 

The first care should be to see that the engine is thoroughly 
cleaned in the manner prescribed under Care and Maintenance, 
in one of the preceding chapters. Any repairs and adjust¬ 
ments that appear necessary can profitably be made at this 
time so that the car will come out in good shape after its 
period of rest or storage. Always remember that one cannot 
expect a car to come out in good running order unless it is in 
fit condition when laid away. 

Transmission Gear. 

The change speed gear should be washed out with kerosene 
in a similar manner to the engine. If the car is a direct driven 
one, the bevel gear case should be filled with grease, there 
being no necessity to clear this out, though it would do no 
harm if it were washed out with kerosene and fresh grease 
put in. The change speed gear box lid should be removed, or 
probably in many instances it would be better to remove the 
top half of the gear box completely so as to expose the gear 
wheels contained therein, for inspection purposes. The gear- 
shafts should be felt for slackness, and if any motion except 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


147 


a slight movement endwise is noticed, they had better be seen 
to at once by the repair man. If the gears are found to be in 
good order and require no attention, the gear-box should be 
filled up to the under side of the gearshaft with gear-box oil 
or lubricating oil and grease, about one-third of the latter to 
two-thirds of the former. 

Connections and Chains. 

All the pins, joints, and connections should be well oiled; in 
fact, it would be better to remove these, cleaning them thor¬ 
oughly and replacing them, having previously given them a 
good coating of vaseline. The wheels should be jacked up 
and removed from their axles, these and the axle-boxes being 
cleaned out and well greased before replacing. When going 
round the car, attention should be given to the anchored ends 
of the springs, and the shackles on the free ends of these should 
also be well greased. These are some of the points which are 
particularly liable to be overlooked when going through the 
process of overhauling and cleaning. Where chain drive is 
employed, the chains should be removed from the sprockets 
and well cleaned in kerosene, after which they should be im¬ 
mersed in melted tallow and allowed to remain in this for 
several hours. Remove the chains, and hang them up to allow 
the superfluous grease to drain off. 

The Clutch. 

Special attention should be given to the clutch. This should 
be withdrawn as far as possible, and its surface well cleaned 
with gasolene, after which it should be given a good coating 
of neatsfoot or castor oil. Some have used successfully a mix¬ 
ture of one-half castor oil to one-half of glycerine. It is well 
to note that the application of clutch dressings is useless unless 
the clutch leather, where used, is in a condition to absorb some 
portion of the dressing applied. Thus it happens that a slip¬ 
ping clutch will soon attain so hard a surface that it cannot 
take up any of the moisture it needs so badly when any dress¬ 
ing is applied. An application of gasolene—assisted by a hard 
brush—will bring the clutch leather to a state in which it may 


148 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


be successfully treated. Look to the adjustment that it does 
not slip or grip too tightly. If the clutch be interconnected 
with the side brakes, pay particular attention to the adjust¬ 
ment here, as it requires very careful checking to act prop¬ 
erly. 

The Protection of Exposed Metallic Parts. 

After having attended to the engine and gearing, the next 
thing is carefully to go over all the metallic parts of the frame' 
and of the connecting rods used in conjunction with the steer¬ 
ing gear, change speed gear, and the brakes. Where the paint 
has been scratched or barked sufficiently to expose the metal, 
this should be rubbed bright with a piece of emery cloth, and 
paint or air-drying enamel applied, giving it at least two coats 
of either. All plated or polished parts should be given a coat¬ 
ing of pure vaseline after they have been thoroughly cleaned 
and polished. Pure vaseline, as obtained from the druggist, 
is specified as distinct from the commercial article, which is 
not so pure, containing as it does salts which are injurious to 
nickel or silver-plated parts, whereas the refined vaseline has 
no efifect upon them. In the course of a few runs the greased 
bright parts will collect a certain amount of dirt, which, if 
necessary, should be very carefully removed with a piece of 
rag soaked in kerosene. The dirt should be scraped rather than 
rubbed off, as the rubbing is liable to cause scratches. A long, 
slow sweeping stroke of the kerosene rag takes up the dirt 
without using it as an abrasive material. This is a very im¬ 
portant point, for scratched brass or plated work looks ex¬ 
tremely bad. If the mud of many months be allowed to accu¬ 
mulate over the vaseline, it will do no harm, for it bears the 
same relation to the grease surfaces as the hair of a rabbit 
skin; you cannot remove the one without the other. 

Lubricators. 

All the lubricators should be drained of any oil which they 
may contain, and should be thoroughly washed out with kero¬ 
sene or stale gasolene. Where sight-feed lubricators are fitted, 
or types which necessitate the using of lengths of copper pipe 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


149 


to convey the lubricant from its receptacle to the bearing’s, 
such pipes should be removed, and should have kerosene 
passed through them. For this purpose, a syringe is the best 
instrument to use, as the cleansing fluid can be passed through 
the tubes at a pressure which will insure any obstruction 
caused by the congealing of the oil, or by other causes, being 
swept away. If this is done and the pipes are reconnected, 
when the car is taken out again one will know that all that is 
necessary for good working of those parts is a fresh supply 
of lubricating oil. 

Tire Treatment. 

We now come to the question cf tire treatment, and here it 
is somewhat difficult to advise, for there are variations in each 
and every make of tire. That is to say, there are some tires of 
one make which wear very much better than others, and these 
are always worth retreading if the fabric is good; others there 
are in which slices of rubber come away from the fabric whole¬ 
sale, leaving it to be attacked by wet, and thereby ruining it 
for retreading purposes. The question as to when a tire needs 
repairing is one of sympathetic judgment. We have seen men 
cheerfully running tires upon whose treads there was scarcely 
an ounce of rubber left, and yet they talked of having them 
retreaded “when the rubber was all gone.” Directly a bad cut 
in the rubber is observed, a rule should be made of having it 
attended to at the first opportunity. The cut should be washed 
out with water to remove dirt, and then carefully dried. 
Gasolene should then be wiped or brushed into the cut to 
further clean the surfaces and prepare them for the coating of 
rubber solution, which should be next applied. After the solu¬ 
tion has been left for about ten minutes or a little more, the 
cut may be filled up with one of the many preparations which 
are now sold for the purpose. Failure in a repair is invariably 
traceable to insufficient cleansing or experimental treatment. 
Any cuts which are found in the covers should be dealt with 
on the lines indicated above. If one has any suspicion that 
any particular tire is in such condition that it may at any time 
become a “lame duck,” have it off; it saves hours (possibly 


150 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


on the roadside) at a later date. This is also a good oppor¬ 
tunity to repair any punctured inner tubes which may be on 
hand. For this purpose there are handy vulcanizers to be 
obtained if one wishes to do the work oneself. 

Laying up for the Winter. 

Having now indicated the general lines of treatment to 
pursue in preparing a car for winter use, we must consider the 
owner who, for special reasons, is compelled to lay up his car 
during the whole of the winter. The car to be laid up should 
be treated on the general lines already laid down, but some 
further attention is also necessary. When the car is brought 
in after its final run, the first thing to be done is to remove 
the cushions, aprons, lamps, horn, and all the tools and spare 
parts. The battery should be taken from its box, and it would 
be advisable to remove the coil and all the wires connected 
with the electrical ignition apparatus. When doing this, a 
rough sketch should be made showing the method of wiring, 
as when these parts have to be replaced it is as well to have a 
definite guide at hand, for in the interval between the putting 
away and bringing out the car it is the easiest thing in the 
world to forget the terminals to which particular wires should 
be connected. 

Care of the Engine. 

As to the engine, some additional attention is needed, par¬ 
ticularly with regard to the interior of the cylinders. These 
should be well washed out with kerosene followed by a little 
gasolene. This treatment dissolves any oil which may be on 
the cylinder walls or piston, and which may cause them to 
stick, and it prevents the oxidation of the oil if it is allowed to 
remain. As to painting the engine over, which is often advis¬ 
able, some owners inquire if it will be necessary to clean off 
the paint before running the engine again; and if so, they 
strongly object to following this course. It would of course, 
be necessary to remove the protecting coating, otherwise when 
the engine began to get warm with running the paint would 
make itself particularly disagreeable. There is not much dif- 


151 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 

ficulty in removing such a covering if olive oil be used, as the 
olive oil never sets hard, and is therefore readily attacked by 
turpentine or gasolene. If the engine is not so covered, it 
may present a lamentable spectacle after a few weeks’ stand- 
ing. If not painted the engine should receive a coating of 
vaseline. Particular attention should be paid to the exposed 
portions of the valve stems, as should they become at all 
rusty, they are liable to stick in their guides and cause trouble. 
These should in any case be well coated with vaseline. As 
to the remainder of the car, it should be treated on the lines 
already laid down, with one or two exceptions, which we will 
proceed to deal with. 

Battery Treatment. 

The battery, when battery ignition is used, forms the prin¬ 
cipal object for attention among those parts which have been 
removed from a car, and great care will have to be taken with 
this for its proper preservation. It should be tested, and if 
found to be below its full voltage it should be recharged until 
this voltage is attained. The acid should now be poured out 
from the cells of a wet battery, which should be washed out 
with clean rain water two or three times so as to remove all 
the acid, and they should afterwards be filled up with pure 
clean rain water to a point the height of a quarter of an inch 
above the top of the plates. The rubber stoppers should now 
be replaced. While washing out the cells, the terminals also 
should be carefully washed to free them from all traces of 
acid. They should be wiped dry, and given a coat of pure 
vaseline as a further protection against their corrosion. 

As many cells are filled with a semi-solid electrolyte, it 
is impossible to subject such to the above treatment, and as 
the acid cannot be removed from the cell, there is only one 
course of satisfactory treatment open, and that is to have the 
batteries recharged every six weeks at least. In the mean¬ 
time, a small four-volt lamp should be connected in the circuit, 
and should occasionally be allowed to remain lighted for a 
period of, say, half an hour, so as to enable the battery to 
discharge itself to a slight extent. This helps to keep the 



152 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


plates in much better order than the mere recharging at 
stated intervals without any discharge having taken place. 

Dry batteries can be dismissed in a few words. As nothing 
can be done to assist them in retaining their energy, it is as 
well to take advantage, if possible, of what current they are 
still capable of giving off. The cells may be used to energize 
electric bells, or they may be used for a glow lamp or some 
such purpose. 

The Coil. 

The induction coil requires but little attention. It should 
be put away in a dry place, and out of all danger of being 
subjected to high temperatures. For instance, it should not 
be put in a cupboard against that side of the wall where the 
chimney is likely to give off more than a medium temperature. 
It will thus be seen that the only requirements are to protect 
the coil from damp and from excessive heat. The reason for 
this is that paraffin wax is often used as an insulating material, 
and if this substance becomes sufficiently heated to melt, in 
many coils the insulation would be entirely broken down, 
on account of there not being sufficient non-conducting ma¬ 
terial on the wires. So that if this were to happen such coils 
would be absolutely ruined. Obviously, therefore, cold, so 
long as the atmosphere is dry, does not injuriously affect the 
coil. 

Laying up Tires. 

The tires need very special attention. They should be re¬ 
moved from the wheels, the air tubes carefully examined and 
tested, and if found to be in good condition they should be 
treated with a liberal supply of French chalk, and put into a 
bag or box, and stowed away, preferably in a dark room 
where an even medium temperature obtains. The covers 
themselves should be very carefully examined, and all cuts, 
whether large or small, should be treated in the manner al¬ 
ready described. If this is not to the liking or beyond the 
capabilities of the owner, the tires might be sent to the man¬ 
ufacturers for general overhauling and repairs. This would 
really be the most satisfactory procedure. For the storage 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


153 


of the outer covers of the tires, the same conditions apply to 
the inner tubes. As their bulk is much greater than that of 
the inner tubes, the most handy method of protecting them 
for storage is to bandage them round with strips of canvas. 
An owner once had occasion to lay by a set of motor car tires* 
and instead of using French chalk for the outer covers, he used 
flowers of sulphur in a very liberal manner. After the tires 
had lain by for some four months or so, they were brought 
out, and looked as fresh and as good as ever. Not only so, 
but they showed no signs whatever of hardening or cracking, 
and retained their elasticity to the fullest degree. This was 
probably due to the fact that sulphur is the principal com¬ 
ponent used in the vulcanization of indiarubber. It is notice¬ 
able, as a general rule, that in the course of time the sulphur 
exudes from the rubber, leaving it in a very spongy form, 
thus allowing air to enter. This hardens the material, so that 
it eventually breaks up into small patches. The owner afore¬ 
said tried the sulphur, therefore, as a matter of experiment, 
on the theory that sulphur thus applied to the outside of the 
covers would prevent that which was contained in the sub¬ 
stance of the rubber itself from working out. He was pleased 
to note that his theory was borne out by practice. If it is not 
convenient to remove the tires from the wheels, the car should 
be jacked up and packing put underneath the axles, so that the 
wheels may be kept well off the ground. 

Lamps. 

Lamps, whether of the oil or acetylene type, should be 
thoroughly well cleaned and polished, wrapped in cloths, and 
stored in a dry place. Particular care should be taken to 
cleanse thoroughly the carbide container of acetylene lamps 
of all deposit, and to dry the interior of the vessel carefully 
before putting it away. If any carbide is allowed to remain 
in the container for any length of time it will form such a 
hard and solid mass as to endanger the container when it is 
removed by forcible means at a later stage. All oil and wicks 
should be removed from the vessels of oil lamps, and as a 


154 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


further precaution against the action of stale oil at a later 
period, they may be washed with a strong solution of hot 
soda and water, afterwards being carefully wiped out, or if a 
cloth cannot be inserted into the oil well, they should be dried 
by evaporation. 

The horn which should have been removed at the same time 
as the aforementioned parts, should be cleaned and put away 
with the lamps. 

A Covering for the Car. 

Having now taken all the needful precautions for the pro¬ 
tection of the car in detail, we next have to consider the 
vehicle as a whole. Even in the very best of garages, it is well 
to cover the whole of the vehicle, including the bonnet, with a 
light sheet, the edges of which are provided with tapes to 
enable it to be tied down into position over the car. Such 
vehicles as are provided with hoods or canopies present some 
little difficulty in this way, owing to the immense size of sheet 
which would be required to cover the car as a whole. Except 
for the really efficient protection of such cars as are so fitted, 
two sheets would be necessary, one of which would cover the 
body completely, slots being cut in the edges of this sheet 
at suitable points, so that the rods supporting the canopy 
would not interfere with the complete protection of the car¬ 
riage body. If it is thought absolutely necessary to protect 
the canopy by reason of its being fitted with expensive cur¬ 
tains, a second sheet should be thrown over this, allowing it 
to hang down to a sufficient extent to meet the sheet which is 
placed over the car. Leather hoods should not be allowed to 
remain for any long period in a folded-up position, for how¬ 
ever good the leather may be, and whatever means are taken 
to provide for its protection and the retention of its supple¬ 
ness, it will dry and crack where sharp bends occur in it. 
For this reason it is well, if possible, to let the hood remain 
open during such time as the car is standing in the garage. 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


155 


PART XI. 

GASOLENE—ITS PROPERTIES AND ECONOMICAL 

USE. 

Economy in consumption of fuel in any kind of engine con¬ 
sists in using just enough fuel for the purpose, and also, where 
the fuel is a combination of different elements, in using these 
elements combined in the cheapest -way where one is of higher 
value than the other. It will pay the motorist to study out 
the proper proportions of gasolene to air. A great deal 
more air is required than gasolene. It has been found that a 
gas mixture in which there is too much gasolene not only 
reduces the power of the engine, but sets up internal troubles 
due to sooting up and overheating, so that if the proportion 
of air is too small, an extravagant proportion of the substance 
which has to be purchased is perforce being employed, and at 
the same time the engine efficiency is decreased and its 
mechanism injured. 

This shows that the great and most important point as re¬ 
gards economy in consumption of gasolene is the proper de¬ 
signing and functioning of the carbureter. At present, 
fortunately, the manufacturers’ attention is being drawn to 
correct design so as to obtain always a constant mixture, and 
also a mixture as efficient as possible. Generally speaking, the 
driver errs on the side of giving too much gasolene rather than 
too much air. 

Another consideration is the speed of the engine. An en¬ 
gine will give out its greatest efficiency, that is to say, the 
heat units of fuel consumed will be least in proportion to the 
work done when the engine is running at the speed at which 


156 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


it was designed to run. If it runs faster than this, it will be 
extravagant; if it runs slower it will require a richer mixture, 
and, therefore, a larger proportion of gasolene to air, and so in 
this instance also economical methods are not achieved. It is, 
therefore, advisable to run the engine as nearly as possible at 
a constant speed. In the case of an internal combustion en¬ 
gine as used on motor vehicles, however, this is practically 
impossible, but is approximated by means of the change speed 
gear. 

The greatest economy in fuel can only be obtained by very 
careful driving and a thorough understanding of what is going 
on in the engine under varying circumstances. For this rea¬ 
son the reader should refer to the article on Driving, in which 
the manipulation of the control levers as regards air and throt¬ 
tle—in order to secure efficiency—is fully dealt with. He 
must bear in mind that the best results as regards speed and 
power obtained, and reduction in wear and tear of engine, 
will be achieved by practising economy; in other words, if he 
tries to force the engine by giving it a rich charge, he will not 
only fail to obtain the required result, but overheating, car¬ 
bonizing, knocking, preignition, and many other troubles will 
soon make their presence evident. 

Economy of gasolene, as it is generally understood by the 
automobilist, refers to economy in covering a certain distance. 
It is for this reason that in reliability trials the gasolene con¬ 
sumption is reckoned in ton miles, the speed being considered 
fairly constant for the car—that is, a speed of something about 
twenty miles per hour. Of course, the automobilist who aver¬ 
ages over this speed will find that the consumption increases 
because the wind resistance, and, therefore, the power re¬ 
quired to propel the vehicle on an even surface, increases as 
the square of the velocity. 

This ton mileage method of arriving at economy also leaves 
out of consideration the nature of the roads and other re¬ 
sistances offered to the movement of the car, so that the 
economy will be affected adversely if excessively bad roads 
or heavy head winds are met with, or if the speed is high. 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


15 7 


This method of regarding the subject precludes the fact that 
all these conditions make the engine do more work. Thus, if 
the engine is to be run economically, the driver must look to 
what is taking place in the engine and car itself. It is ob¬ 
vious that he cannot level out hills or smooth out roads or 
prevent head winds; it is also obvious that he can make the 
work which is actually done in the engine and car itself as 
small as possible, so that it is clear that economy will be af¬ 
fected if the engine is not in thorough working order. 

Loss of compression will affect the power of the engine, but 
at the same time the engine will be using as much fuel, the 
result being that it will not propel the car the same distance, 
or against the same resistance, as it would if it were in proper 
working order, and thus economy in actual results is lost. In 
the same way the transmission mechanism (which includes 
the whole of the construction of the car which transmits the 
power from the engine to the road wheels), if it is not in 
proper order, will affect economy because it will absorb power, 
so that to perform the same amount of work as regards mov¬ 
ing the car the engine will have to use more fuel. 

The quality of the fuel used also bears on the question, al¬ 
though nowadays, with improved carbureters and a more uni¬ 
form standard of specific gravity for gasolene, the condition 
of the fuel does not count for so much as it did in the old days. 
Another considerable loss of economy arises if the gas charge 
is not ignited and expanded at the proper moment; that is to 
say, the full length of the working stroke of the piston should 
be taken advantage of. It is obvious that if ignition of the 
gas charge is delayed until after the piston has commenced to 
descend on what should be the power stroke, a great deal of 
its efficiency will be lost as regards the pressure exerted on 
the piston. 

When the density of gasolene has reached a point which 
interferes with its free evaporation it is called “stale” gaso¬ 
lene. It then makes an imperfect mixture for motor-car en¬ 
gines, but is useful for removing grease and dirt from metal 
parts of the car. 


158 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 

Gasolene is a light, volatile, colorless liquid commonly ob¬ 
tained by the distillation of petroleum and forming one of the 
series of hydrocarbons for motor cars. Much used as a fuel 
in internal combustion engines. Motor spirit is usually called 
“Petrol” in the British Isles, “Essence” in France (short for 
“Essence de petrole”), “Benzin” in Germany, “Benzina” in 
Italy, etc. 

When the crude petroleum, as drawn from the wells, is 
placed in a closed vessel and heated, the most volatile parts 
evaporate first. This vapor is caught and cooled (the com¬ 
bination of the boiler and condensing apparatus constitute a 
still), and the liquids which settle in the condenser come over, 
and have a specific gravity varying from 0.629 to 0.667 ' m 
case of gasolene; to 0.802 for kerosene, and 0.875 f° r lubricat¬ 
ing oils. Other petroleum products include cymogene, sp. gr. 
0.588, naphtha, benzine, etc. 

Gasolene is the first distillation before kerosene, that is, 
gasolene is a mixture of petroleum ether and benzoline. Chem¬ 
ically speaking, it consists to the extent of 75 per cent, or more, 
of methanes with some heptanes. The remainder is ethenes 
with traces of benzines. 

Benzine is the unfortunate commercial name given to “A” 
naphtha, which tends to confusion with another substance 
which is a coal-tar product. 

In ordering gasolene in Europe the scale often used for in¬ 
dicating the density is that of Beaume. Zero on this scale 
corresponds to the density of a solution of salt of specified 
proportions, and ten degrees corresponds to the density 
of distilled water at a specified temperature or to a spe¬ 
cific gravity of unity. The portion of the stem of the in¬ 
strument lying between these two points is divided into ten 
equal parts, and the rest of the stem is divided into divisions 
of equal size up to ninety degrees. Higher numbers indicate 
lower specific gravities—a rather confused arrangement. 

The actual instrument used is a densimeter or hydrometer. 

The specific gravity of what is sometimes called .680 gaso¬ 
lene varies with temperature, but is supposed to be measured 


:AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 159 

at 6o° Fahrenheit. It is .667 at 87°F., and .693 at the freezing 
point, 32°F. 

Vaporization Experiments—The vaporization of gasolene 
requires a surface per H.P. of 221 square centimeters, heated to 
about 82° C., the pressure of the vapor mixture being 760 milli¬ 
meters of mercury. The gasolene must fall on the surface drop 
by drop. In the case of spraying carbureters, the velocity of the 
air must be 25 meters per second; the vaporization surface can 
thus be less than 221 square centimeters. The vapor diffuses 
in air with a velocity of 5 millimeters per second. Knowing 
the speed of the suction, it is easy to calculate the openings 
in the gauze required and the length of suction pipe in order 
that the gasolene vapor may have time to completely penetrate 
the air before it is admitted to the cylinder. The vaporization 
of kerosene requires a surface of 200 square centimeters per 
H.P. heated to a temperature of 220 0 C., the pressure being 760 
millimeters of mercury. 

GASOLENE HINTS AND TIPS. 

A Cheap Gasolene Gauge. 

A very efficient and cheap form of gasolene gauge can be 
fashioned from a sufficient length of ground-glass rod, which 
should be fairly stout. Run your car on to a level place, empty 
your tank and then measure the gasolene back therein, gallon 
by gallon. After the introduction of each gallon sound the 
tank with the ground-glass rod and the height of the spirit 
therein will be plainly visible on the rod. Mark the height of 
each successive gallon on the rod with the edge of a sharp file, 
and, the rod being kept in a leather clip handy to the tank, 
you will have a ready means of determining how much gaso¬ 
lene there remains in your tank at any time. 

Gasolene Leaks. 

One often hears of abnormal gasolene consumption in cer¬ 
tain cars, while sister cars are known to run far more eco- 


160 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


nomically, and this is put down as a rule to the driver. To a 
great extent the gasolene consumption is under the control of 
the driver, but very often slight leaks in the gasolene system 
are responsible for a considerable amount of gasolene being 
wasted, and as the gasolene evaporates immediately, it is ex¬ 
posed to the air, these leaks escape notice, and the owner’s 
pocket suffers accordingly. If a high consumption is experi¬ 
enced, and the ordinary remedies fail, we would suggest using 
a mixture of gasolene and kerosene, say, in proportions of one 
gallon of kerosene to four gallons of gasolene, when the kero¬ 
sene will percolate through any leaks, but will not evaporate, 
thus rendering the locality of the leak easy to determine. As 
soon as the leaks are found out and repaired gasolene alone 
can be used again if desired. An alternative is to place in the 
gasolene tank a few grains of some aniline dye. This will 
color the gasolene, say, a dark blue, without affecting its quali¬ 
ties. The dyed gasolene will now pass through these leaks and 
leave a stain wherever a leak occurs. 

It is a good plan to carry a length of rubber piping which 
nicely fits on the gasolene pipe from the tank to the carbu¬ 
reter. If the tank should ever leak seriously that rubber pipe 
can be put on one end on to the gasolene pipe. The other 
end, which has a short length of metal pipe, will be put 
through the cork of one of the two two-gallon cans of gaso¬ 
lene which should be always carried in the car, irrespective 
of what may be in the running tank, and by propping or hold¬ 
ing up this can the driver will be able to get gasolene to the 
carbureter, and reach home or a place where the tank or its 
connections can be repaired. 

Gasolene Supply. 

When touring in remote districts, where gasolene supplies 
are infrequent, and where the quality is of a doubtful char¬ 
acter, one naturally wishes to carry as large a supply of satis¬ 
factory spirit as possible. The storing of this, however, in 
two-gallon cans is inconvenient in many instances, as, no mat¬ 
ter how neatly they are packed when starting out, they are 


:AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


16i 


certain sooner or later to become dislodged, either for the pur¬ 
pose of removing baggage or obtaining spare parts, tools, etc., 
and they are never repacked as neatly as they were before. 
Even if they retain their original position, there is always the 
fear of their becoming upset through the vibration of the car 
when traveling. In many types of motor vehicles there is 
ample room for the placing of a tank in which may be carried 
any quantity of gasolene up to, say, twenty or thirty gallons. 
Generally these tanks should be located beneath the floor¬ 
boards of the car, having a convenient filling cap on the out¬ 
side of the car, or by lifting a floorboard in the back seats of 
the car. The cap should be perfectly airtight, and provided 
with an air pressure valve and permanent connections to the 
ordinary gasolene tank. When it is desired to replenish 
the latter, it would only be necessary to turn on the tap be¬ 
tween the spare tank and the regular supply tank. Then, by 
means of the tire pump, sufficient pressure is raised in the spare 
tank to force the spirit from that into the second receptacle— 
an obviously easier and cleaner procedure than the unscrew¬ 
ing and filling up from cans, to say nothing of less waste, as 
the spare tank could be filled at a quicker rate than the ordi¬ 
nary tank. In addition to being much safer, this arrangement 
gives much more space for baggage, not to mention the pas¬ 
sengers’ feet and limbs. 

For Straining Gasolene. 

A Boston, Mass., automobilist contributes a good tip for the 
straining of gasolene before putting it into the tank. He says: 
“I have found the best quality (jewelers’) chamois skin makes 
a most excellent medium for straining gasolene. It stops dirt, 
fluff and water, so far as my experience shows, and if the open¬ 
ing of the funnel is 8 inches in diameter, so that a good-sized 
piece of skin may be used, it does not materially delay the 
filling of the tank.” 

It is often a somewhat difficult matter to get car owners to 
realize the necessity for straining gasolene as it is poured into 

the supply tank of the car. Even men who- have owned 
11 


162 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


cars for some time neglect this important though apparently 
small matter. They invariably start off by straining their 
gasolene, but sometimes when the strainer is not at hand they 
simply pour the contents into the supply tank from the can 
direct. Because nothing has happened they have continued 
this practice, with the result that they have got an accumula¬ 
tion of dirt which sooner or later reaches the carbureter, caus¬ 
ing a great deal of trouble and annoyance before it is finally- 
got rid of. Rather than fill up the tank with unstrained gaso¬ 
lene, it is better to use a pocket handkerchief folded twice or 
three times, or even four times, according to the texture of 
the material, and make a strainer of it. Of course, the hand¬ 
kerchief, after being employed in this way, is not desirable for 
personal use. 

An Improved Gasolene Filter. 

Another owner writes: “It has been my experience that 
gasolene is continually getting dirtier, and only during the past 
year or so have I had to clear my gasolene supply pipes on 
account of sluggish running, and I am (or rather was) sur¬ 
prised to find so much dirt. It occurred to me that a more 
efficient filter could be easily made to filter the spirit so per¬ 
fectly that no solid matter or sediment could ever get into the 
tank. The following was adopted, and the arrangement has 
proven most satisfactory: 

“Take an ordinary funnel, and remove (by melting the 
solder) the lower end. Buy a pepper dredger, knock the bot¬ 
tom out, and after straightening and cleaning the edges, solder 
this on to the top part of the original funnel. 

“Enlarge by drilling small holes in the copper lid of the 
pepper-box, and your filter is complete when a small circular 
piece of linen is placed under the cover of the pepper-box. A 
supply of linen disks should be kept, for I find that a new 
one is required for filtering each can of gasolene.” 

Auxiliary Gasolene Tank for Touring Purposes. 

Where gravity feed is used for the gasolene supply to the 
carbureter, the gasolene tank is often fitted as high as possi- 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


163 


ble under the driver’s seat, this giving just about sufficient 
head of gasolene to allow of satisfactory working on ordinary 
give-and-take roads. However, when touring through hilly 
districts, it is found that at times there is difficulty in main¬ 
taining the proper gasolene feed to the carbureter, so that just 
at the time when most gasolene is needed less is obtained. 
To get over this difficulty, a spare tank can be fitted at the 
forward end of the car, and connected to the carbureter, so 
that the fact of having hill-climbing to do would allow of 
really a higher head of gasolene to be supplied to the car¬ 
bureter, so that no difficulty in climbing the worst of hills 
can be caused by failure of the gasolene supply to the car¬ 
bureter. 

On Repairing Gasolene Tanks. 

Should a tank or other vessel which has contained gasolene 
require repairs calling for a soldering iron, great care should 
be taken to clear such tank of any gasolene fumes which may 
remain therein, otherwise there is the possibility of an explo¬ 
sion occurring. Gasolene fumes being heavier than air will 
remain in any vessel for a considerable time, even though it 
has an opening to the air. There are several ways of clearing 
away such fumes, of which turning the tank with its opening 
to the lowest point and leaving it so for several hours is the 
easiest. Another method is to subject the tank to indirect heat 
in a similar position to that mentioned; that is, perhaps, the 
quickest method, though not always convenient. In any case, 
it is always advisable to keep it, if a blow lamp is used, as far 
away from the tank as possible. 

Fitting a Float to a Tank. 

Every driver feels the need of a float for showing the height 
of the gasolene in the tank, though only the most modern cars 
are so fitted. We show a simple method of fitting a float to 
any tank without cutting the tank open. The ordinary filling 
cap A is removed, and centrally in it is made a hole. Through 
this hole is passed a nipple B, which is soldered in place. The 
nipple is formed with a shoulder providing suitable holding 


i 


164 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


surface for the solder in spite of the usual thinness of the 
filling cap. Through this nipple B is passed a wire C at¬ 
tached to a float D. Replacing the filling cap, the float will 
rise, and the wire passing through the nipple will indicate 
how much fuel there is in the tank. Generally speaking, it is 
advisable to make the float to withdraw from the tank with 
the filling cap. For this purpose the end of the wire can be 
riveted over, or provided with a ball, as shown at E. On the 
top of the nipple is screwed a cap F, which normally keeps the 





float down. Directly the small cap F is removed, the float 
will rise. Of course, the float D is made sufficiently small to 
pass through the ordinary filling opening, and care must be 
taken not to damage the float when the cap A is removed. In 
making a float suitable for the purpose, it is advisable to test 
its buoyancy in gasolene, after the wire C has been fixed. 
A float which is sufficiently buoyant in water is nothing like 
so buoyant in gasolene, and much time can be saved by first 
testing this point. 












'AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


165 


PART XIII. 

OPERATING MECHANISM. 

The control mechanism of a typical modern ( 1909 ) auto¬ 
mobile is described below: 

Steering Wheel—The wheel is constructed of bronze with 
hard rubber grip. This is a special feature; the wheel is a 
very strong and the grip is unaffected by the weather and al¬ 
ways presents a neat and attractive appearance. 

Steering Gears—The power exerted through the wheel is 
communicated to the steering gears—the worm and sector— 
which are of special steel. The parts are thoroughly lubricat¬ 
ed and completely protected. 

Steering Mechanism—A short vertical shaft connects the 
sector with the steering connecting rod, its upper end fitting 
over a hexagon taper on the sector and locked with a castel¬ 
lated nut, and the lower end is ball shaped, forming part of 
the universal joint at the rear end of the steering connecting 
rod. Buffer springs are placed at both ends of the steering 
connecting rod to absorb the shock caused by jolting over 
rough roads; hexagon nuts hold the springs and socket joints 
in place, these nuts being pinned in place so nothing can work 
loose, and yet when desired may be removed for the purpose 
of thoroughly cleaning all the parts; the universal joints at 
both ends of the steering connecting rod are packed in grease 
and protected by leather boots. The front tie rod is placed 
back of the front axle. 

Spark Lever—Placed on top of steering wheel and stamped 
“Spark.” When pulled back toward the operator as far as it 
will go the spark is fully retarded and when pushed as far 


166 AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 

forward on the quadrant as it will go the spark is fully ad¬ 
vanced. 

Hand Throttle—A small lever stamped “Gas” is placed on 
top of the steering wheel and as it is pushed forward the 
throttle is opened. The throttle is of the balanced type and 
operated by the governor, and the adjustment is such that 
when the hand throttle on the wheel is fully opened the gov¬ 
ernor will prevent the motor from racing. 

Foot Throttle—This is a pedal operated by the right foot; 
when fully depressed it opens the throttle wide and overcomes 
the action of the governor. 

Gear Shift Lever—This is placed so as to be operated con¬ 
veniently by the right hand. The various positions of the 
lever give the following results: Outer Quadrant: lever farth¬ 
est forward,—Reverse ; next position back,—First Speed ; cen¬ 
tral position,—Neutral; rear position,—Second Speed. Inner 
Quadrant: front position,—Third Speed; central position,— 
Neutral; rear position,—Fourth Speed. 

Brake Lever—This is a hand lever placed just beyond the 
gear shift lever; the brakes are engaged by pulling the lever 
back. 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


'6 7 


PART XIV. 

CHOICE OF A CAR, ETC. 

To the average man the purchase of an automobile usually 
involves many important considerations, including those of 
price, cost of upkeep and adaptability for the buyer’s pur¬ 
pose. 

The question of choice among the numerous makes and 
models of cars now offered to the public may be considered 
under two general heads, namely, in relation to new cars pur¬ 
chased from the makers or an agent and second-hand cars 
bought from a private owner or a dealer. 

‘Tn choosing a car,” writes an autoist who has been through 
the mill, “one has a good many things to consider. First, 
perhaps, comes the sadly sordid question of cost, and this 
question has several subsidiary ones tacked on to it. Are 
you prepared to spend enough to buy a thoroughly sound 
car of well-known make, and are you prepared to devote a 
proper amount to its upkeep? Do you realize that a certain 
annual expenditure above and beyond gasolene, etc., is neces¬ 
sary to a motor car? Or are you only disposed to lay out 
the price of a good second-hand car? Do the claims of gaso¬ 
lene, of steam, or of eDctricity appeal most strongly to you? 
How many passengers do you desire to accommodate, and 
what horse-power will you consider necessary ? Will you 


168 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


be content with low power which will propel you at decent 
speed on the level, but will require the lower speeds far hill 
work, or would you prefer sufficient engine power to carry 
you up gradients of I in io without changing down? Do you 
propose to do your own driving, or is your automobiling to 
be of so strictly amateur a character that you will keep a 
chauffeur who will do all the driving? You say your friend 
has a So-and-so that never gives him any trouble, and you 
mean to have the same? Well, there is something in that, 
provided your friend’s requirements -and accomplishments are 
the same as your own; but not necessarily otherwise. Per¬ 
haps he will sell you his car. There is nothing like know¬ 
ing the antecedents of a second-hand investment.” 

There is a widespread opinion that every beginner should 
learn on a small car of moderate horse-power. He will learn 
quicker than on a big car, and in the trying days of his noviti¬ 
ate will be less likely to prove a danger to himself and the 
general public. There is an absence of responsibility about 
a modest light car, and the driver gains confidence rapidly, 
whereas the big car proves a constant strain to his nerves. 
His mistakes, too, prove far less expensive. With a big ex¬ 
pensive car ignorance or carelessness may cost him consider¬ 
able money within the first few months. With a small car he 
is less likely to make mistakes that cause damage, while the 
cost of making good such damage as may occur is trifling as 
compared with the big car. From the pleasure point of view he 
will derive just as much value from a light car as if he aspired 
higher before gaining experience, and will at the same time 
have in reserve the keen pleasure of graduating on to smoother 
running vehicles of greater horse-power, until the limit which 
he can afford has been reached. Even when he has attained 
the summit of his ambition he will still possess a kindly affec¬ 
tion for the small light car, and will find it advantageous from 
an economical, pleasurable, and convenience point of view to 
keep one in his garage. 

Having learnt on the small car, and become comparatively 
efficient, the beginner naturally aspires higher. If he is a 


ALTO MOBILE DRIVING 


169 


man of moderate means, in the true sense of the term, he 
may be satisfied with his small car, though it be but a two- 
seater. The light car of good construction is cheaper to run 
than a horse and buggy, even after allowing for depreciation, 
upkeep, tires, fuel, and interest on capital, and will carry him 
reliably at an average speed considerably over the legal limit. 
The addition of a tonneau, however, to the lighter cars makes 
a very appreciable difference. The initial cost is higher, the 
wear and tear greater, tires do not last so long, and the con¬ 
sumption of gasolene and oil is increased. 

With the three, four, and six-cylinder cars the increase is 
continued almost in the same proportion, and there is practi¬ 
cally no limit upward. 

As regards the choice of make only general advice can be 
given. Do not invest in an absolutely new type made by a 
firm whose members have not had experience in the motor 
business. 

Do not trust your own judgment. Even a trained engi¬ 
neer cannot tell by mere inspection if a car is all right. 

Do not attach too much importance to the advice of inter¬ 
ested parties. 

If you are absolutely inexperienced and have no friends to 
whose judgment you can trust implicity, buy on reputation. A 
car which has been before the public for years, and is in large 
demand and highly spoken of, must possess merit. 

If you have gained a certain amount of knowledge by inter¬ 
course with other automobilists, or by reading, inspect the 
types you think most promising, get demonstrations and trial 
runs, and then, giving special weight to the public reputation 
of the firm, and the experience of those friends of yours who 
have owned such cars, make your decision. 

Above all things avoid, if possible, the “cheap and nasty” 
car. It will probably cost you as much in repairs during a 
single season as (added to your initial expenditure) horse¬ 
power for horse-power, would have bought you the best car 
on the market. 

As regards second-hand cars, never buy without getting ex- 


170 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


pert and disinterested examination. It is worth paying a few 
dollars for this. Also try and find out something of the previ¬ 
ous history of the car, and the character of the driver, as such. 
Many men ill-treat their cars, and the purchaser of the same 
second-hand is buying trouble. For this very reason second¬ 
hand cars sell cheaply, and there are grand bargains to be 
picked up if the would-be purchaser can only succeed in sep¬ 
arating the chaff from the wheat. 

The Question of Price. 

Many people complain that the prices charged for auto¬ 
mobiles are exorbitant. Most of them have never seen a car 
made, and would wonder how it could be done for the money 
if they had the opportunity and patience to follow all the 
different processes through from beginning to end. It must 
be remembered, too, that in comparatively few cases are 
models sufficiently well established, either in the factory or 
by fashion, to justify their being turned out in very large 
quantities. As time goes on, doubtless cars will become 
cheaper; or, rather, while the prices remain much the same, 
the value given for those prices will be higher. 

Except in the case where cost is no object, it is best to 
decide in the first instance on the sum proposed to be ex¬ 
pended, then to hunt through some such list of cars as is pro¬ 
duced by the leading automobile journals about the period of 
the annual exhibitions. This will lead to a number of makes 
being noted as approximately right in relation to seating ac¬ 
commodation, price, and (now that information on motoring 
is becoming fairly widespread) perhaps also speed and power. 
The number so chosen can generally be further reduced to 
four or five after consulting the illustrations and descriptions 
of the most recent models elsewhere in this Cyclopedia, and by 
referring to the good or bad results obtained in reliability 
trials, races, long-distance records, etc. The results of speed 
races are not much guide as to the excellence of a model, how¬ 
ever, except the really serious races of great length, the win¬ 
ning of which may be looked on as proof that the factory has 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


171 


a staff capable of designing, calculating and turning out a 
machine which can withstand the severe conditions of such 
a r in. 

Examination and Advice. 

The next step is to visit the showrooms of the makers and 
use one’s judgment, receiving with due discretion the neces¬ 
sarily favorable verdict which the salesman will pronounce 
upon his own product. At this point the real difficulty of 
choice comes in. If one has automobiling friends with en- 
experience and advice may sometimes be secured by consult¬ 
ing an engineer, but such a professional adviser must, of 
course, not be a dealer in, or interested in the sale of any 
cars. 

It is unwise as a general rule to buy cars through the inter¬ 
mediary of one’s own or a friend’s chauffeur. It is preferable 
to trade direct with either the manufacturer or his agent, and, 
when there is a choice of agents, to buy from whatever local 
man is most likely to be called on to do the repairs afterwards. 
In either case it is often profitable to obtain and pay for 
skilled advice on the principle of the saying, “Advice that is 
not paid for is not worth having.” 

Every purchaser should, when ordering or buying a car, 
remember that he will some day want to sell it. This will 
often prevent the installation of some special “fad” which is 
the craze of the passing moment or the indulgence of some 
personal whim in construction which will surely detract from 
the selling value subsequently. 

Buying a Second-hand Car. 

In buying a second-hand car a very nice discrimination has 
to be used, for there are as many points about the second-hand 
automobile as there are about a stockyards horse. It is always 
best to obtain an expert’s opinion before finally buying, unless 
the purchaser has already had sufficient experience to dis¬ 
criminate between a mechanism which has been fairly worn 
and one which has been torn about by bad driving and neglect. 

Never buy a car because of its outward appearance; a coat 


172 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


of paint will cover a multitude of blemishes, and it is not the 
finish which runs the car, though it frequently sells it to the 
novice. Often the result is that the owner pays for repairs in 
a few months a sum of money which, if added to the pur¬ 
chase price of the car, would have been sufficient to buy a new 
car. At the same time, a second-hand machine may prove an 
excellent educator in motor mechanics, and if the buyer hap¬ 
pens to get hold of a really bad car, what he does not know 
about the details of an automobile and its tributary mechanism 
inside of six months is hardly worth knowing. 

Examining the Frame—Having met with an apparently sat¬ 
isfactory vehicle, after a general inspection, the frame and 
wheels should first of all be subjected to a careful detailed ex¬ 
amination. Many buyers are disposed to go for the motor and 
gearing alone, entirely neglecting the carriage work and 
frame, but as the latter has to carry the former, one should al¬ 
ways go into that part first, so that an opinion as to the en¬ 
gine’s capabilities of moving the vehicle can readily be formed. 
The stability of the entire machine centers itself upon the 
wheels, for no matter how good the rest may be, the whole is 
weak, from a traveling point of view, if the wheels are not 
strong enough to do the work they will be called upon to per¬ 
form. Therefore, the first thing to do is to examine the wheels 
and their axles. 

Supposing the wheels to be wood, the first tests should be 
for soundness generally. Grasp the rim of the wheel, and pull 
it towards and then push it forcibly away from you. If any 
give is felt or creaking heard, examine the wheel carefully to 
see that the spokes are tight at the hub and at the felloe or 
rim. If the wheel happens to have been built of imperfectly- 
seasoned wood, a shrinkage will probably occur, resulting in a 
loosening of the spokes at the felloe. More frequently the 
spokes are strained by inconsiderate driving over bad roads 
and unduly violent use of the brake many times repeated. Hav¬ 
ing tested all the wheels for soundness, next have them jacked 
up, and try them for wear in the bearings and for truth in run¬ 
ning both circumferentially and laterally. 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


173 


The chief test for axles is to find whether they have sunk 
or not; this is an easy test, for one has only to view the wheel 
edgewise and note if it is vertical or otherwise. If any doubt 
exists, a plumb line may be used. Pass a wheel which inclines 
outward at its top edge, but instantly reject it if it inclines in¬ 
ward, despite any plausible explanations from the vendor. 

Springs and their Fastenings—Next examine the springs 
and their fastenings both to frame and axle. There is a big 
strain upon the shackles around the axles, and signs of spring¬ 
ing here should be looked for. This is indicated by a crack¬ 
ing of the joint and an unmistakable line at the point of move¬ 
ment. Note that the springs lie flat upon one another, partic¬ 
ularly at the joints. If they are apt to gape, they have been 
badly strained and the plates set back; the plates are therefore 
not doing their full share of the work, the greater part of it 
devolving upon the principal member. 

Unsuspected Points of Wear—Points of considerable wear 
unsuspected and unattended to by many experienced auto- 
mobilists are the bolts by which the springs are connected 
to the frame, particularly the free or linked end of the spring. 
When the car is in motion there is constant friction upon 
the top and bottom halves of the respective link bolts. Many 
owners have seen these bolts worn down by grooving one- 
eighth of an inch below the original diameter, and that after 
a few’ months’ use. Much may be done to reduce this wear 
if the bolts are regularly oiled around the links and the eye 
at the opposite end of the spring. 

The Steering Gear—The next part of the outfit to receive 
attention should be the steering gear. Anyone who has ever 
ridden in an automobile and given its operation a thought will 
at once realize the importance of having this as perfect as 
possible. The first thing to notice is the amount of backlash 
or free motion of the steering wheel or handle before the steer¬ 
ing comes into operation. If the steering is of the worm and 
segment type, and the lost motion is found to be here, there 
is no radical cure for it beyond replacement. If it is on the 
combined screw, nut, rack and pinion type—that is, with a 


174 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


nut working on a screw on the steering column, the former 
having a rack on it engaging with a pinion—adjustment is 
possible by the lock-nuts at the bottom of the steering column. 
If the looseness is not here it will probably be found in the 
connection of the steering and distance rods. If these connec¬ 
tions are made with cone screws they may be adjusted, but if 
plain bolts are used it means fitting new bolts, at least, to 
correct the error. 

Brake-applying Connections—Particular attention should be 
directed towards the braking arrangement, especially as to its 
adjustment, and to the range of the hand lever applying the 
back wheel brakes. Unless the brake-applying connections are 
correctly compensated both as to the equal application of 
power to the brake drums and to the relative movement be¬ 
tween the carriage body and the back axle, it will be found 
that while the brake may be applied with sufficient force to 
stop the car while the body is up on the springs, yet when it 
is down the lever canot be pushed down sufficiently to apply 
any appreciable power to the brake drums. This is because 
the slackness has to be taken up first by the hand lever before 
the band is applied to the drum. Unless sufficient travel is 
provided on the notched quadrant, it will be seen that with a 
heavy load the efficiency of the brakes is decreased under the 
verv conditions at which it should be at its best. Sit in the 
car and put on the brake as hard as you can, and mark the 
notch in which the lever rests. Now load up the car and see 
how much further down the lever goes. Beyond this point 
there should be several notches, so as to make further ap¬ 
plication of the brake possible in contingencies. This latitude 
is noticeable in nearly every car fitted with cable-applied 
brakes, but is not so apparent in those using solid connecting 
rods. The pedal-applied countershaft band brake is not of 
so much importance, as it may easily be adjusted, and its con¬ 
ditions of use are not variable. 

The Control Handles—Try the control handles, sparking 
advance, air to carbureter, and throttle if fitted; see if these are 
performing their various duties correctly and without too 


"AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


175 


much play. At the same time, note the relative movement 
of each part and its lever; that is, make sure of the position 
of the lever when, say, the spark is retarded for starting. It 
is useful to know these little things when running the motor 
later on. It must always be remembered that a certain 
amount of wear has been had out of a second-hand car, and 
that absolutely perfect adjustment must not, and need not, be 
expected. 

Testing the Motor—This brings us to the motor. Much has 
to be taken for granted here, as it is impossible to find out the 
exact state of an engine short of taking it down, and it is 
hardly likely that any owner would consent to this, unless 
under very exceptional circumstances. However, some very 
useful information may be deduced by anyone understanding 
the running of a motor. For those who are unable to get any 
experienced assistance, the following tests may be carried out, 
supposing that a single-cylinder motor is being tried—the 
multi-cylinder we will deal with later: 

First test the compression. Take the starting handle and 
turn round the crankshaft until decided resistance is en¬ 
countered ; then bear heavily upon the handle, noting the 
strength it takes to turn the handle until the compression 
stroke is passed. The longer the time and the greater the 
strength required to overcome this resistance the better the 
engine is as regards the fit and wear of the cylinder and 
piston. It must, of course, be seen that the valve lifter is 
down, or the compression relief is closed, otherwise no com¬ 
pression will be encountered. Another thing which will some¬ 
times be found seriously to affect compression is that, through 
wear on the exhaust valve seating, the valve stem has got 
right down on to the plunger, so that it does not close down 
on to its seat perfectly. This and the proper fixing of the 
sparking plug and other cylinder fittings are obviously things 
to be attended to before carrying out this test. 

Connecting Rod Bearings—The next test is for wear in the 
connecting rod bearings; this, in some cases, is very difficult 
to carry out. Where it is practicable to fix the starting handle, 


176 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


or a long wrench to the crankshaft end, a gentle movement 
backward and forward will disclose any looseness in these 
bearings' Failing this test, the engine should be listened to 
very carefully while starting up, running slow, and stopping. 
If a distinct and recurring knocking noise is heard, it may 
very safely be assumed that the connecting-rod bearings are 
loose, and require taking up or renewing. If the gearing is 
inclosed and cannot be viewed, remove the contact breaker 
cover, and by moving the cam backward and forward a rough 
estimate of wear can be formed. If these wheels have been 
badly cut in the first place, the wear may amount to such 
proportions as would materially affect both the lifting of the 
exhaust valve and the amount of firing. Of course, the lat¬ 
ter may be corrected by advancing the contact, but the late 
opening of the exhaust valve cannot be remedied without re¬ 
setting the wheel on the shaft. 

The Water Circulating System—If the motor is water- 
cooled, examine the water jacket for cracks, particularly 
around the head and valve chamber, where the jacket is cast 
in one with a solid-headed cylinder. When the cylinder and 
head are cast separately with their water jackets there is less 
risk of such cracks appearing. Attention should next be di¬ 
rected towards the water circulating pump, where such is 
fitted, and if driven by belt or friction wheel, the spindle should 
be felt to see that it is not too loose. It is as well to remove 
the stuffing box nut around the spindle, for at this point there 
is usually a lot of wear taking place, and it is just as well to 
know exactly in what condition the pump spindle is. It will 
probably save a lot of trouble later on. Look over the water 
pipes and connections. A badly-dented tube resists the pas¬ 
sage of water, and, of course, affects the cooling of the cyl¬ 
inder to a considerable extent, that is, if it be a main delivery 
or return tube. The flexible connections of the water pipes 
should be of rubber hose, and should be free from leaks. It 
would be absurd to look at trivial points such as this with too 
critical an eye, yet beginners often make a trouble of a point 
like this, while they would say nothing about a lubricator 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


177 


which would not work, simply because they did not know it 
was out of order. This is where the experienced man comes in. 

Testing Ignition—The electric ignition apparatus should re¬ 
ceive particular attention, as it is sometimes a little misun¬ 
derstanding of this part which brings a really good car into 
the market. The most important part of the apparatus is the 
contact breaker or commutator. As there is a general mis¬ 
understanding of these terms, it will be as well to state their 
differences here. The contact breaker is a piece of mechanism 
in which two parts are put into contact with one another for 
a time, and are then parted. A commutator is a disk of in¬ 
sulating material having on its periphery metallic pieces in a 
like number to that of the cylinder. Bearing upon the disk 
is a brush of copper gauze, sheet copper, or steel, which, when 
the metallic pieces in the commutator pass beneath it, cause 
the current to pass. As the commutator is now perhaps more 
frequently employed than the contact breaker, we will use 
this term, but it must be understood that any remarks apply 
to both equally. The first thing is to see that the commutator 
is set correctly. To do this, relieve the cylinder compression, 
and turn the starting handle until the plunger rises to lift the 
exhaust valve; continue turning until the plunger drops. Now 
turn the handle round one resolution exactly, at which point 
the commutator should be about to come into action, that is, 
when it is set right back. Then move the sparking advance 
lever up, and note the amount of travel the brush has around 
the commutator; this represents the limits of ignition. A more 
definite method of finding the point of ignition is, when pos¬ 
sible, to drop a stiff wire through the compression tap, letting 
it rest upon the top of the piston. 

Batteries and Wiring—The wiring and all the connections 
should be examined most carefully, especially as to the clean-, 
liness of the terminals and the soundness of the insulation 
around the wires. The chief points for inspecting the latter 
are at places where it bends round any part of the mechanism. 
At such places the vibration to which the wire is subjected 

frequently causes the insulation to be worn away, resulting 
12 


178 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


in annoying short circuits, and it is such defects as these 
which, as we said before, cause good machines to appear 
in the market. Where possible, look at the accumulator or 
battery plates to see they are not bent, as they may possibly 
be if they have been discharged too rapidly or too low. Also 
note at the same time if the plates themselves are complete; 
it sometimes happens that some of the paste falls from the 
plates, and if this happens to lodge between a positive and 
negative plate it sets up an internal “short,” causing no lit¬ 
tle trouble. 

Carbureter Efficiency—The carbureter should be examined 
to see that the air adjustment, float, and throttle valve (if 
fitted) work freely. Start the engine and while it is running 
slowly listen for any knocking or grinding sounds. Next, 
get a good mixture, and with the throttle full open gradually 
advance the ignition, noting if the engine answers to it well. 
Retard the spark, or cut off the current, and again listen for 
any knocks. When the engine stops, start it up again, and 
advance the spark about half or two-thirds of its travel, and 
then try varying the speed by means of the throttle valve. It 
will be as well at this stage to see that the cooling water has 
not become unduly heated, for if it keeps fairly cool while 
the engine is running with the car stationary, it will be cer¬ 
tain to be more effective while the vehicle is moving. No 
indication of the power of the engine can be ascertained while 
the engine is running light. 

Examining Multi-cylinder Engines—Up to the present we 
have been dealing solely with a single-cylinder motor, so we 
will now pass on to the extended tests required for a multi¬ 
cylinder one. Each cylinder should be tested for compression 
in the same way as previously described for a single-cylinder. 
The compression in each cylinder should be, as nearly as pos¬ 
sible, equal. As the two-to-one gear wheels are usually of 
ample proportions, deterioration here may be regarded as a 
negative quantity. The ends of both crankshaft and cam¬ 
shaft being within easy access, these may be tried for wear, 
while the opposite end of the crankshaft may be similarly tried 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


179 


by means of the flywheel. The examination of the commu¬ 
tator, as regards its position, is not of such great importance 
in this case on account of the reduced wear on the two-to-one 
gear wheels. The remainder of the mechanism should be in¬ 
spected and tested in the same manner as for a single-cyl¬ 
inder engine. 

The Lubrication—The lubrication of the engine is of the 
greatest importance, and this should therefore he looked to 
with a very critical eye. The methods of supplying lubricant 
are varied. In some engines the oil is passed through to the 
crank chamber in quantities by means of a force pump; in 
others it is supplied regularly drop by drop by a drip lubri¬ 
cator. These are the more useful methods. With the force 
pump lubricator it is sufficient to see that the pump is acting 
correctly, and that its piping is complete and not leaking at 
any joints. In the drip feed lubricator a more careful exami¬ 
nation is needed, as there are adjustment details to be looked 
to, for it is most important that the feed be regulated to suit 
the fluid conditions of the oil. If the drip valves are found 
to act correctly, then look over the pipes for dents or frac¬ 
tures. The pipes should in this case be of fairly large diam¬ 
eter, so as not to interfere with the free flowing of the oil. 
There are a variety of mechanical oil feeds fitted, and these 
should be noted for correct functioning while the engine is 
running. 

Transmission Considerations—We next arrive at the trans¬ 
mission gear, but this we must deal with very broadly, as there 
are so many adaptations of the various systems. The first 
part of the transmission is the clutch. With the hand, depress 
the clutch pedal and see that the driven portion is withdrawn 
clear of the driver without any excessive force being used. 
In the case of leather to metal clutches, if the male cone can 
be withdrawn sufficiently to examine the leather facing, it 
should be seen if this is in good order and not worn down too 
thin. While the male cone is out of engagement the clutch- 
shaft should be tried for wear by lifting it at the cone. It 


180 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


should also be noted that there is provision made for adjust¬ 
ing both the clutch and the clutch pedal. 

The Change Speed Gear—It will be necessary to lift the 
lid off the gear-box to inspect the change speed gear wheels. 
The teeth of these wheels should show a brightly burnished 
surface on the faces, but not on the tops and bottoms. By 
faces is meant the breadth of the teeth which engage with 
the opposite wheel. If they show as brightly at the tooth bot¬ 
tom as they do on the faces, they have been intermeshed too 
deeply in the first place, and there is likely to be excessive 
wear. If they show dark or lightly touched surfaces, they 
have been correctly set, and they should be in good running 
order; in fact, they will probably be better than new. Each 
of the wheels should be looked at all the way round to ascer¬ 
tain that no teeth are broken. If the sliding type of gear— 
that is, a type where the wheels are slid into engagement side- 
wise—be in the car under notice, the edges of the teeth should 
be looked to. If the car has been in good hands, the teeth 
will show brightly on their engaging sides; but if the driver 
has been at all clumsy it will probably be found that the 
teeth are badly chipped at these points. 

The speed changing movements should all be closely 
watched while manipulating the actuating lever. The wheels 
on the sliding sleeve should move deliberately and accurately 
into their corresponding wheel—that is, provided the teeth are 
not opposite one another. The edges of the wheels should be 
in a perfect line, not one overhanging the other; if this is the 
case, it indicates a lot of lost motion in the connections be¬ 
tween the sleeves and the actuating lever. A certain amount 
of latitude is permissible here, but the movement should not 
be more than what might be termed ‘‘a little free.” If there 
is a lot of backlash there is something wrong somewhere, and 
it should be carefully looked for with a view of correction. If 
the total width of one wheel exceeds that of the other, as is 
sometimes the case, particularly with the reversing gear, then 
it does not follow that something must necessarily be wrong. 

Points of Strain and Wear—The bolting up of the gear-box 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


181 


to the frame also should be inspected, particularly for signs 
of straining. Its oil-retaining and dust-excluding capacities 
should be attended to, otherwise trouble is likely to follow. 
After the shaking up of a few thousand miles the lid of the 
box sometimes develops a tendency to rattle by reason of the 
catches working loose; where studs or bolts and nuts are used 
for this purpose, there is no fear of the lid coming adrift. 

The countershaft bearings and differential gear should be 
looked to and tried as far as possible, and side chains, if any. 
carefully inspected. These and the sprocket wheels should 
be examined most carefully, as they are the last stage but one 
in the chain-drive transmission system, and, moreover, often 
have to run entirely exposed. Hard, gritty, sandy mud acts 
as an abrasive upon both chain and sprockets, cutting them 
about very badly, if the car has had much running in bad 
weather in sandy districts. The forward or wearing side of 
the teeth is likely in time to become concave in form instead 
of convex, thus interfering with the chain leaving the wheel 
freely. As to the chains, the principal parts are the side links 
upon which the greater strain comes. If these appear to be 
cut or distorted and want renewing, it should have an effect 
on the price of the car. 

The propeller-shaft joints, bevels, differential gear and driv¬ 
ing ends of the rear axle should all be tested for play. How 
to do this properly should be learned by every conscientious 
driver. 

Wear and Tear Considerations—It should always be borne 
in mind that one must discriminate between fair wear and 
tear and bad usage. The results of fair wear and tear will al¬ 
ways be found in a second-hand car and cannot very well be 
objected to, but results of bad usage should be noted as likely 
to cause future trouble. In such parts as the steering gear, 
governor, carbureter, ignition system and other connections 
there will usually be some looseness due to use, and allowance 
must be made for this. It is only excessive wear, the result 
of misuse, or bad fitting, that needs careful examination be- 


182 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


fore deciding upon the purchase of a second-hand car which 
exhibits such symptoms. 

When one has examined a likely car it is well to make a 
fairly liberal estimate for adjustments and replacements which 
may be thought necessary, and in calculating cost this amount 
should be added to the purchase price of the car. As already 
stated, the sum required for alterations, repairs and replace¬ 
ments in a second-hand car, added to the purchase price, would 
frequently suffice to buy a new car. 

Choice of Tires—The buyer of a new car is often offered 
the option of several kinds or makes of pneumatic tires. As 
the tire question is a very important one in relation to auto- 
mobiling it is advisable that every owner and intending pur¬ 
chaser should fully inform himself as to the various styles and 
brands of tire in the market so as to exercise a wise discre¬ 
tion in making his choice. Experience is of course the best 
guide in this and other matters connected with motoring, and 
he who lacks personal experience must needs rely on that of 
his friends or on the word and reputation of the manufacturer 
and dealer. But it should always be borne in mind that a 
poor tire is dear at any price. 

Reliable figures can be obtained as to the proper size of 
tire to use on a car of a certain weight and horse-power. The 
objects sought for in selecting a size of tire for a car are 
stated as follows: 

1. To obtain the comfort, the absence of personal fatigue, 
and the protection from wear and tear to machinery which 
a pneumatic tire can give, while at the same time attending 
to the considerations named in the next two paragraphs. 

2. To avoid constantly bursting the tire cover by the wear 
induced by excessive bending of the rubber and canvas side 
walls. This occurs if the tire is too slight in section for the 
?oad, the horse-power or the speed employed. 

3. To secure just such a size of tire that the tire bill is the 
minimum compatible with comfortable use, that is, not too 
large in section, nor of too big a diameter, as this makes steer¬ 
ing difficult and is unnecessarily expensive in first cost, and 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


183 


yet (which is far the more common fault) not of too small a 
diameter, as the running costs due to bursts then become pro¬ 
hibitive. 


/ 




184 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


PART XV. 

CHANGE SPEED GEAR—VARIOUS FORMS. 

The internal combustion engine exerts its maximum power 
at a constant speed; consequently, variation of pace is pos¬ 
sible only between narrow limits from the motor itself, and 
recourse has to be had to the mechanism known as the change 
speed gear, in order to obtain the necessary range of flexi¬ 
bility required. 

This consists fundamentally of a reducing gear, by which 
the high rate of revolution of the motor crank shaft is modi¬ 
fied to a lower speed on a secondary shaft, from which the 
road wheels are driven. The ratio between the rate of revo¬ 
lution of the motor shaft and the speed of the secondary 
shaft is capable of alteration, generally in a series of steps 
and between fixed limits. 

Ordinary change speed gear, such as is in every-day use 
at present, consists generally of a series of gear wheels vary¬ 
ing in size, pairs of which can be engaged one with another 
whilst the remainder are idle. The mechanical methods by 
which this can be done are limited in number, and the fol¬ 
lowing list indicates the broad headings under which change- 
speed gear principles act: 

1. By sliding the wheels into or out of mesh, either sep¬ 
arately or on a sleeve. 

2. By having the gears constantly in mesh, and determin¬ 
ing the working pair by means of a sliding feather, which 
locks any required wheels to the shaft. 

3. Constantly meshing gears rendered live by means of 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


185 


clutches, either frictional or expanding, or by positive or dog 
clutch engagements. 

4. Epicycloidal gears, where the changes are obtained by 
gripping and releasing the various members. 

These four classes comprise the standard systems, but al¬ 
most every maker of note has some specialty of his own, 
which, though varying but slightly from a standard pattern, 
would necessitate a lengthy description for its complete com¬ 
prehension. 

The first of these four classes of change speed gear is found 
in the Panhard and other chain-driven cars, is typical and 
comprises simply a pair of shafts inclosed in an air-tight box, 
one driven through the medium of the friction clutch from 
the engine, and the other driven from the first by means of 
gear wheels. 

The most satisfactory arrangement of variable speed mech¬ 
anism comprises a motor powerful enough to take all small 
gradients on the top gear, combined with a transmission pro¬ 
viding at least two lower gears for hills properly so-called. 

TRANSMISSION AND VARIABLE GEARING. 

Selective Sliding Gears. 

The method of sliding gear wheels into mesh with each 
other endways seems, from an engineering point of view, a 
barbarous system. It is remarkable, however, that in prac¬ 
tice it has been proved most successful for change speed gears 
in motor cars. The different ways in which this method of 
o-ear changing can be arranged is remarkable, and we shall 
deal with several systems in order. 

The Panhard Type—The Panhard was the earliest example 
of the type of change speed gear in which the gear wheels 
were arranged to slide endways. It is still used on a num¬ 
ber of cars, and has given remarkable results, but modifica¬ 
tions of it have lately been introduced which are becoming 
rather more popular, though the principle embodied in the 
Panhard gear is that which is found in practically every type 
of sliding gear on the market. 


186 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


In the accompanying figures, which are purely diagram¬ 
matic, we have a four-speed Panhard type of gear. 

The different figures from one to four show the gear in 
operation in four different speeds; as the reference letters 
are alike in the four diagrams, there will be no difficulty in 
following the procedure. 

Shaft X is the shaft which is driven by the engine. It will 
be noticed that it is carried in two bearings—one at each 
end in the gear box, and that between those two bearings 
the shaft is square shape. 

It is on the squared part of the shaft that the four wheels 
A, B, C, and D are mounted. They are so mounted that 



A, Ai, Low speed wheols. D, Di, Top speed wheels. 

B, Bi, Second speed wheels. X, Primary Shaft. 

C, Ci, Third speed wheels. Y, Secondary shaft. 


they can slide on the square, being pushed along in either 
direction by a fork which encircles the collar shown between 
B and C. The fork which operates this collar is connected 
by means of rods to the change speed gear lever operated 
by the driver. 

It must be remembered that A, B, C, and D are always 
relatively in the same position to each other, because they 
are mounted on one single sleeve which slides along the 
squared part of the shaft X, so that any movement of the 
collar in either direction will move the whole four gear 
wheels. 

Outside of the gear box is seen, in diagrammatic form, 
the male portion of the clutch which puts shaft X into driv¬ 
ing communication with the engine shaft. X is termed the 





























































!AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


187 


primary gear shaft. Lying parallel with it, and also in two 
bearings in the gear box, is shaft Y, which is termed the 
secondary shaft. It is from shaft Y that power is trans¬ 
mitted to the differential box. On Y are wheels Ai, Ci, Bi, 
and Di. These wheels are of such diameters as to mesh 
respectively with A, B, C, and D on the shaft X. They are 
rigidly attached to the shaft Y, and can neither move around 
nor along it. In this respect they are different from the 
wheels A, B, C, and D on shaft X. These wheels cannot 
move around the shaft, but can move along it. In the posi¬ 
tion shown in Fig. i the gear wheel A is in mesh with gear 
wheel Ai. 

If, now, the engine drives the shaft X, the wheel A will 



rotate shaft Y through the medium of Ai, and Y will rotate 
the differential box and drive the car; but since A is con¬ 
siderably less in diameter than Ai, it is obvious that the 
car will travel comparatively slowly relatively to the speed 
of the engine shaft, which is the speed of X. This is the 
low gear. 

Supposing, now, it is desired to make the difference be¬ 
tween the speed of the engine and the speed of the shaft Y 
relatively less; if we bring the sleeve carrying wheels A, 
D, C, and B to the right in our diagram, the wheel A will 
come out of mesh with Ai, and B will come into mesh with 
Bi. Bi is smaller in diameter than Ai, while B is larger 
in diameter than A; therefore, although B is smaller than 
Bt. ^haft Y will still rotate at less speed than shaft X. This 
will give us the second speed. This is shown in Fig. 2. 




































































188 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


To get on the third speed we must slide the sleeve on 
shaft X still further to the right until B comes out of en¬ 
gagement with Bi, and C comes into engagement with Cl. 
This is shown in Fig. 3. It will be seen here also that Ci is 
larger in diameter than C, so that shaft Y will still be mov¬ 



ing at a less speed than shaft X, but there will not be so 
great a difference as in the case of Fig. 2. 

To get on to top gear, the sleeve on shaft X must be moved 
still further to the right until D and Di come into engage¬ 
ment with each other. Now, D and Di are of the same 
diameter, therefore shaft X and shaft Y will be rotating at 
the same speed, and the engine will be driving the bevel pin¬ 
ion on the differential at its own speed. 



In this method of arranging the sliding gears there can 
never be a position in which the engine drives direct on to 
the shaft which drives the differential. That is to say, there 
is no direct drive on the Panhard type of gear. 

As regards the reverse—which is not shown in our dia¬ 
gram—there is a wheel mounted on a third shaft which en- 































































































































AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


189 


gages with Ai and A respectively—thus reversing the direc¬ 
tion of motion—shafts X and Y now revolving in the same 
instead of the opposite direction to each other. This gives 
the reverse gear. 

In the Panhard system (as used up till very lately on all 
models of Panhard cars, and which has given its name to a 
type of gear) it is usual to have a countershaft with sprocket 
wheels and chain drive, and in such cases the secondary shaft 
Y carries on its end, and inside the gear box, the bevel pin¬ 
ion which engages with the crown wheel on the differential 
shaft. The same system is adopted on other cars in which 
the shaft Y terminates in a universal joint, connecting it up 
to either a cardan or a propeller shaft, and transmitting the 
power to a live axle which contains the differential. 

The Mercedes Type—The Mercedes type of gear takes its 
name from a gear which was introduced on one of the ear¬ 
lier Mercedes cars. The word “Mercedes” has now become 
a generic term for gears which incorporate the system intro¬ 
duced by the Mercedes Company. It uses the sliding type 
of gear—the gears coming into engagement with each other 
endways—but it has this great advantage, that, by using tw r o 
pairs of sliding wheels instead of all four sliding together, 
as in the Panhard type, the shaft on which the gear wheels 
are mounted can be kept short. It has also another distinct 
advantage in the fact that a direct drive from engine to back 
axle can be got without the power having to be transmitted 
through the second shaft. In such cases, of course, instead 
of having two sets of gears in operation, only one set is 
used between the engine and the back axle on the top speed 
—that set is the bevel and crown wheel of the differential. 

The gear box of the 35 h.p. Talbot car, shown in Fig. 5 > 
may be taken as an example of the latest type of the Mer¬ 
cedes principle.* 

It will here be seen that we have a primary and a sec¬ 
ondary shaft, just as we have in the case of the Panhard. 
The primary shaft is shown at PGS, the secondary shaft at 
SGS. Sometimes SGS is known as the lay shaft. The pri- 


190 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


mary gear shaft is not directly connected to the engine or 
the clutch, but at the left-hand end in our illustration it will 
be seen that it is surrounded by the sleeve IGS, which we 
may term the initial gear sleeve. This sleeve is driven by 
the engine, and, with the gears in the position shown in our 
illustration, it is not in connection at all with the primary 
gear shaft PGS, but will simply revolve about it on the ball 













^ 9 PS 




mm® 


o.l... . . 







—t-—— -2 I ■ ■■ ■ A 

PGS. 

\ * 



FIG. s- -VERTICAL. SECTION OF 

IGS, Initial gear sleeve. 

I D P, Intermediate driving pinion. 

I D W, Intermediate driven wheel. 

S G S, Secondary gear shaft. 

1 and li, Driving and driven wheels of first speed 

2 and 2i, Driving and driven wheels of second speed 

3 and 3i, Driving and driven wheels of third speed. 

4 and 4i, Driving and driven parts of fourth speed 

direct driving clutch. 


TALBOT GEAR BOX. 

PGS, Primary gear shafts 
R R, Reverse pinions. 

B B, Ball bearings.' . 

T B, Thrust ball bearings.. 

F W, Felt oil-retaining washers. 

U J, Fore part of universal joint. 
B D, Brake drum. __ • 

' U J C, Universal j.oint coupling. 

P S, Propeller shaft. 


bearings B B. The power from the engine is transmitted 
to this sleeve. On its right-hand end it is provided with 
external and internal teeth, the external teeth being explained 
by the letters IDP (which stand for intermediate driving 
pinion). Now, this pinion is in constant engagement with 
the gear wheel IDW (which stands for intermediate driven 
wheel) on the secondary gear shaft SGS; that is to say, so 












































































































































AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


191 


long as the engine rotates the sleeve 1 GS, it will also ro¬ 
tate the gear wheel IDW, and, therefore, the secondary gear 
shaft SGS and all the wheels upon it—all these four wheels 
being permanently fixed in position and incapable of rotat¬ 
ing except with the shaft. 

Imagine, now, the gear in the position we show it and 
the engine running. IGS is rotating and driving with it at 
a much lesser speed the shaft SGS, because the pinion IDP 
is less in diameter than the gear wheel IDW. 

It will be seen that no gear wheels on the shaft SGS are 
in gear with the shaft PGS, so that the shaft PGS will not 
be rotated by the engine, and as this shaft is connected by 
the universal joint UJC to the propeller shaft of the rear 
axle PS, the engine will not be driving the car. 

On the primary gear shaft PGS are two sets of gear wheels. 
On the right are gear wheels i 1 and 2 lf which can be slid 
independently along the gear shaft because they are on a 
square which, while preventing them rotating, allows them 
to slide laterally along it. Then we have the gear wheels 
3 X and 4 t on a similar sleeve, capable of sliding along the 
shaft, but not rotating upon it. 

In order to allow the engine to drive the shaft PGS, and 
in view of the fact that the shaft SGS is constantly rotating 
while the engine is running, it is necessary to slide some 
one or other of the wheels on shaft PGS into engagement 
with one or other of the wheels on shaft SGS. 

It will be obvious that the smallest wheel on shaft SGS, 
if put into engagement with the largest wheel on shaft PGS, 
will give us the greatest difference between the speed of the 
two shafts, and, therefore, the greatest difference between 
the speed of the engine and the speed of the propeller shaft 
which drives the car. 

Hence, by moving the sleeve which carries i 1 and 2 X so 
that the wheel i x comes into engagement with wheel I, we 
get the first, or lowest, speed—the power being transmitted 
through IDP, IDW, i and i x to the shaft PGS and the 
propeller shaft PS. 


192 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


If the sleeve is moved to the left, so that 2 X comes into 
engagement with 2, we still have a smaller wheel on shaft 
SGS in gear with a larger wheel on shaft PGS; but the dif¬ 
ference is less, and, therefore, the difference between the 
speed of the engine and the speed of the car will be reduced. 
This is the second speed, the power being transmitted through 
IDP, IDW, 2 and 2 X to shaft PGS. 

For forward speeds these are the only two functions which 
are performed by the sleeve carrying the two wheels 2 X 
and i x . 

If it is desired to get from the second to' the third speed, 
the sleeve carrying 2 X and i x must be returned to a position 
in which neither of the wheels engage with their correspond¬ 
ing wheels on the secondary gear shaft. The gate mechan¬ 
ism, which we shall shortly explain, allows us to do this, 
and to leave that pair of wheels locked in the neutral posi¬ 
tion. The next movement of the hand-lever brings the wheel 
3 j on its sleeve to the right, so that it gears with 3 on the 
secondary gear shaft. The engine will then drive through 
IDP, IDW, 3 and 3^ thus rotating the primary gear shaft 
PGS—still driving the car at a reduced speed compared with 
that of the engine. This is the third speed. 

For the fourth speed, in which the engine will drive the 
propeller shaft at the same speed at which it is turning it¬ 
self, we must move the sleeve carrying wheel ?>i and 4i to 
the left. 4 j_ is not really a gear wheel, although it is exactly 
the same shape as a gear wheel, but it meshes completely 
into all the teeth of the internal wheel 4, forming a clutch 
between the primary gear shaft and the initial gear sleeve. 
The engine, as before, will rotate the intermediate gear sleeve 
IGS, and as 4 X is completely housed in 4, the primary gear 
shaft PGS and the initial gear sleeve IGS driven by the en¬ 
gine become as one, and rotate at the same speed; mean¬ 
while, the secondary gear shaft rotates idly, having no effect 
on the transmission of the power. 

As regards the reverse, there are two wheels R and R 
shown in faint outline. These wheels are mounted on a sep- 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


193 


arate shaft underneath the primary and the secondary gear 
shafts. By moving these two wheels R and R to the left, 
wheel R will come into engagement with wheel i on the sec¬ 
ondary gear shaft, while the lesser wheel R will come into 
engagement with wheel I on the primary gear shaft, thus 
reversing the motion, and making the primary gear shaft ro¬ 
tate in the opposite direction to the initial gear sleeve driven 
by the engine. This gives the reverse gear. 

It will be seen that in this gear the secondary gear shaft, 
with all its wheels, is constantly rotating even when the 
gear is so arranged that there is a direct drive on top gear. 
Several gears on the Mercedes principle have been devised 
to overcome this difficulty and to put the secondary gear 
shaft entirely out of operation while the high speed gear is 
in operation. 

Gate Control Mechanism. 

In those types of gear which, on the Mercedes principle, 
as we have described, use two pairs of sliding wheels in¬ 
stead of only one set of sliding wheels, as in the Panhard, a 
gate control mechanism is usually adopted. It will be seen 
that it is necessary that two of the speeds utilize one pair 
of sliding wheels to slide into engagement with one or 
other of two wheels, and that the other two speeds use the 
other pair of sliding wheels. This could be achieved by 
adopting two operating hand levers, one for each pair of 
sliding gears; but this would be a disadvantage in that it 
might confuse the driver at a critical moment, and he might, 
unless some intricate form of interlocking arrangement were 
fitted, accidentally put two gears into mesh at the same time. 
In any case, it would compel him to move one lever to dis¬ 
engage one set of gears, and then move another lever to 
engage another set. 

In order to overcome this difficulty, a gate change and 
selector bar arrangement is usually applied. These appli¬ 
ances may be designed in different ways, but the principle 
underlying them all is that which is illustrated, in a purely 
diagrammatic form, in Fig. 6. A is the change speed lever 

13 


194 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


on the end of the shaft F, which is free to oscillate in a sleeve 
G, or any bearing equivalent to the sleeve G, which is at¬ 
tached to some part of the car. It is also free to move end¬ 
ways inside the sleeve G. The extent of its oscillation in G 
is determined by the length of the slots in quadrant B, through 
which the lever passes. It will be seen that the quadrant B 
has two slots C and D, with a gate between them E. Now, 
the lever can only pass through from one slot to the other 
when it is in a position opposite to E, so that the combined 



FIG. G .—DIAGRAMMATIC VIEW OF A SELECTOR BAR AND GATE 

CONTROL MECHANISM. 


A, Change speed lever. 

£, Quadrant through which lever 
A moves. 

C and D, Slots in the quadrant 
through which the lever moves. 

E, Gate or opening between the 

two slots in quadrant B. 

F, Oscillating shaft to which levers 

A and K are rigidly attached. 

G, Sleeve through which shaft F 

may be moved endways and 
in which it may be oscillated. 


H, One of the selector bars. 

J, The other selector bar. 

K, Selector lever operating bars 

H and J. 

L, Slot in selector bar J. 

M, Slot in selector bar H. 

N and O, Forks on the selector 
bars H and J which engage 
with the sliding wheels in the 
gear box. 


width of the two slots determines the distance of travel of 
which the shaft F is capable inside the sleeve G. 

At the other end of shaft F is seen a lever K, which is 
rigidly attached to it, and this lever K not only oscillates 
with the oscillation of the shaft F, but is also moved end- 
Avays with F. H and J are two bars which are free to slide 
endways in guides, which, for the sake of clearness, are not 
shown in our diagram. These bars have projecting from 
them slotted lugs L and M. These slotted lugs are of such 
a shape that the end of the lever K can be moved into them 









AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


195 


endways, and will engage with them in such a way that they 
can be moved lengthways by any movement of the lever K. 
These bars are known as “selector bars,” and the lever K as 
the “selector lever.” It is the function of lever K to select 
and operate the gear wheels which it is required to move. 

The bar H has, formed with it, an arm having at its end 
a fork N. This fork engages with a collar on one pair of 
sliding wheels in the gear box. Similarly, the bar J has 
,n arm terminating in a fork O, which engages with the 
collar on the other pair of sliding gears in the gear box. In 
the position shown the gear change lever A is in the for¬ 
ward slot in the quadrant, so that the lever K is in engage¬ 
ment with the slot in the bar H. ' By moving the lever back¬ 
ward and forward in the slot D in the quadrant, the bar H 
will be moved backward and forward, and will, of course, 
carry with it, through the medium of the fork N, one pair 
of gear wheels. When lever A is in the forward position in 
the slot D, one of these gear wheels will be in engagement 
with a gear wheel on the secondary shaft. Similarly, when 
it is moved to the left-hand end of the slot, it will cause the 
other wheel of the pair to engage with another wheel on the 
secondary shaft. It will be seen that this will give two dif¬ 
ferent gears. 

When lever A is moved into such a position that it comes 
opposite the gate E between the two slots C and D, this par¬ 
ticular pair of wheels which the bar H controls will be in a 
position in which they are out of engagement with their fel¬ 
low-wheels on the secondary shaft. When in that position; 
the slot M in bar H will come opposite the slot L in bar 
J. If, now, the lever is pushed through the gate E into the 
slot C, the lever K will similarly be pushed through out of 
slot M in bar H into slot L in bar J. Bar H will then be left 
in the same position in which bar J is in our illustration, and 
the operation of the hand lever A will only control the bar 
J; that is to say, the lever has been made to select another 
bar in place of bar H. If, now, the lever is operated as be¬ 
fore (but, of course, in this case in slot C of the quadrant), 


196 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


bar L will be moved backward and forward, and, through 
the medium of the fork O attached to it, it will move the 
second pair of sliding wheels. When in the forward posi¬ 
tion, it will engage one wheel with its fellow on the second¬ 
ary shaft. When it is in the backward position, it will en¬ 
gage the other wheel of the pair with its fellow on the sec¬ 
ondary shaft. In order that while one bar is being operated 
and the other lies idle the second one cannot be moved so as 
to engage the other pair of wheels, spring tops are usually 
provided which hold the bar not in operation so that it can¬ 
not move endways, so as to prevent two gears being put into 
operation at the same time, which, of course, would be dis¬ 
astrous. 

To make our diagram as simple as possible, we have left, 
out the arrangement for the reverse, but this consists of a 
third slot in the quadrant parallel with the slots C and D, 
and also having a gate similar to E through which the hand 
lever can be pushed. It can easily be imagined that lever 
K will then be carried past the slot in the bar L into a slot 
in a third bar which operates the gear wheel which gives 
the reverse motion. 

It will be understood that the action of this device is such 
that the lever cannot be moved from one slot to the other 
without leaving the bar, with which it formerly engaged, in 
the neutral position, and the wheels consequently out of gear. 

This selector bar arrangement is carried out in different 
ways on different cars. Sometimes the whole arrangement 
is incorporated in the gear box; in other cases the selector 
bars and the selector lever are arranged in a separate case, 
and the rods are extended from this case to the gear box. 

Friction Gearing. 

Many attempts have been made to get a variable gear for 
motor cars which would give an infinite variation between 
maximum and minimum, and this has generally been done 
by adopting some sort of friction drive. The friction of the 
periphery of one wheel on the face of another, and sliding 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


19 7 


the one wheel across the other, has been utilized on many 
occasions. In its simplest form this gear is shown in Figs. 
7 and 8. Fig. 7 represents it in plan and Fig. 8 in elevation. 


1 

f 



FIGS. JT AND 6.—A SIMPLE FRICTION'CHANGE SPEED GEAR. 


A, Flat faced wheel driven by 

engine. 

B, Friction wheel sliding across 

face A. 

C, Shaft which carries friction 

wheel B. 


D and E, Bearings carrying shaft C. 

F, Chain sprocket to transmit 

power. 

G, Collar for moving wheel B. 

H, Collar and spring pressing wheel 

A up against wheel B. 


In both figures A represents a large wheel with a flat face, 
driven by the engine. B represents a wheel having on its 
periphery a leather friction surface, which comes in contact 




















































































198 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


with the wheel A—best shown in the plain view, Fig. 7. B 
is mounted on a shaft C, and this shaft is carried in bearings 
D and E, and at one end a chain wheel F is keyed to it, by 
means of which the power is transmitted to the differential. 
B is capable of sliding along the shaft C, which at that part 
is square, but not of rotating upon it. It is slid along the 
shaft by means of the collar G. H is a coil spring which 
presses the engine-driven wheel A up against the friction 
wheel B. 

By moving B along the face of A, different ratios of gear¬ 
ing between the shaft which carries A and the shaft which 
carries B may be obtained, and, therefore, different ratios be¬ 
tween the engine and the road wheels. If the friction wheel 
B is moved right across the center of the wheel A to the op¬ 
posite side, it is obvious that it will be driven in a reverse 
direction, which gives the reverse gear. A lever is used to 
operate the sliding wheel B, and another lever is used to 
take off the pressure of the spring H so as to release fric¬ 
tional pressure between A and B, thus acting as a clutch. 
The pressure may be taken off when changing the gear, 
though in this type of gear it is not always necessary. Our 
diagrams show only a very simple arrangement of this kind 
of change speed gear, but, however carried out in practice, 
the principle remains the same. 

Chain Drive Gearing. 

There are two principal systems of transmission, known 
respectively as the chain drive and the gear drive. In the 
former the crankshaft of the motor is arranged lengthwise 
of the car, the variable speed gear box comes behind the 
clutch, and motion is communicated to a transverse, balance- 
geared shaft, the ends of which are connected by chain gear¬ 
ing with the respective driving road wheels. The greater 
part of the clutchshaft is of square section, and on this part 
is mounted a sleeve furnished with four spur wheels of dif¬ 
ferent diameters. Another shaft, called the gearshaft, is set 
parallel to the clutchshaft and has fixed to it four spur wheels. 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


199 


proportioned to those on the sleeve. The sleeve can be 
moved lengthwise, by a hand lever, so as to bring any one 
wheel thereon into engagement with the fellow wheel on the 
gearshaft. The different wheels in each set are so spaced 
apart that it is impossible to engage two pairs of wheels at 
the same time. So in changing from one gear to another 
the parts pass through an “out of gear” position; and this 
is how they must be set for starting the motor, and also for 
allowing the motor to run while the car is making a tem¬ 
porary stop. Otherwise it would be necessary to hold the 
clutch out of engagement all the while the car was stopped 
and the engine running. 

The average size of the wheels on the sleeve is less than 
the average size of the wheels on the gearshaft, so that, as 
a rule, part of the gear reduction between the motor and the 
road wheels is made here. When the largest wheel on the 
sleeve is meshed with the smallest wheel on the gearshaft the 
car will be driven at its highest (in this case the fourth) speed. 
And as each smaller gear wheel on the sleeve is meshed with 
its fellow on the gearshaft, the gear will be reduced, through 
the third and second speeds to the first speed, in turn. The 
“first” speed means the lowest in automobiling. On the rear 
end of the gearshaft is a bevel wheel which gears with a cor¬ 
responding bevel wheel on the balance-geared countershaft. 

The Reverse Motion. 

The reverse motion in a chain drive gear is often obtained 
by bringing a third wheel or pinion into gear with a wheel 
on the sleeve and a wheel on the gearshaft, these two wheels 
being of such sizes that they cannot mesh directly with each 
other. The introduction of the pinion, of course, causes the 
sleeve and the gearshaft to turn in the same direction; while, 
when the other wheels thereon engage directly with each 
other, they turn in opposite directions. The later form of 
reversing gear only provides one backward speed, and this 
should be a slow one; indeed, it is best to make it a lower 
gear than any of the forward ones, as then if a hill is en- 


200 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


countered that even the first forward speed is too high for, 
the car can sometimes be driven up backward. The old 
form of reversing gear gave as many speeds backward as 
forward, and most, if not all, of them were too high for ordi¬ 
nary use. The driver who accidentally reversed on his fourth 
speed had quite an exciting time of it. 

The Side Chains. 

The outer ends of the balance-geared cross-shaft or counter¬ 
shaft are generally separate from and coupled up to the main 
portions by flexible joints. A chain wheel or sprocket is 
fixed to each of these end pieces, and corresponding chain 
wheels are mounted on the driving road wheels, which turn 
freely on a fixed axle. Endless pitch chains run round the 
pairs of chain wheels. Adjustable “radius rods” are provided 
for keeping the wheels of each chain at a fixed distance apart, 
notwithstanding the movement of the carriage springs; and 
these rods also provide means for adjusting the tension of 
the chains. The chains being so close to the road wheels 
were very much exposed to wet, dirt and grit, and conse¬ 
quently often wore out quickly, but in modern cars they are 
satisfactorily incased. A further reduction of the speed ratio 
is made in the chain gearing, the sprockets on the counter¬ 
shaft being smaller than those on the road wheels. 

The original chain drive gear being very bulky, attempts 
have been made to modify it so as to reduce the size. One 
of the most successful consists in dividing the sleeve into 
two parts. This allows the spacing apart of the wheels to 
be reduced, and also enables the gear to be changed from 
one speed to another without passing through the intermedi¬ 
ate gears. 

Another device consists in packing the wheels in each set 
close together and arranging the respective pairs in perma¬ 
nent engagement. All the wheels on one of the shafts are 
normally loose, and each is fixed as required by a rod carry¬ 
ing a key or feather sliding in the shaft. This is very com¬ 
pact, and it gets over the sliding of the wheels into mesh 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


201 


with one another, but the strains on the key and keyways 
are very severe, though removed from the teeth. 

The chain drive type of gearing is seldom found except on 
the larger cars and those of the buggy type. 

The Gear Drive. 

The cardan, arbor, propeller-shaft or live-axle gear is com¬ 
mon on light cars and has made very rapid headway on the 
heavy ones. The arrangement of the motor and clutch is 
similar to that described above, but the variable speed gear 
is devised with the clutchshaft and gearshaft in line; and for 
the top speed these two shafts are coupled together and ro¬ 
tate as one, the power being transmitted direct instead of 
through spur wheels. There are at least three speeds for¬ 
ward and one reverse, the two lower speeds and the reverse 
being obtained by the spur wheels. The construction is very 
ingenious, and may be described thus: The rear end of the 
clutchshaft and the forward end of the gearshaft telescope 
into each other. The gearshaft is made of square section, and 
on it is mounted a sleeve carrying two spur wheels of dif¬ 
ferent sizes. On the forward end of the sleeve are two strong 
dogs or projections, while on the rear end of the clutchshaft 
is fixed a wide spur pinion having two recesses in its back 
face. A second gearshaft is mounted parallel to the first, 
and on this are fixed three forward spur wheels correspond¬ 
ing in diameter to the two on the first gearshaft and the 
one on the clutchshaft. 

For the top speed the clutchshaft and first gearshaft are 
coupled together by moving the sleeve forward until the 
dogs thereon enter the recesses in the spur wheel on the 
clutchshaft. This is the “direct drive,” and is so called be¬ 
cause no power is lost by transmitting it through the second 
gearshaft; indeed, in some forms of the gear, the second shaft 
is not even rotated when the top speed is in. For the two 
lower speeds, the sleeve is moved back so as to disengage 
the dog clutch and bring one of the wheels on the sleeve 
into gear with the fellow wheel on the second shaft. Now 


202 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


the power is transmitted from the pinion on the clutchshaft 
to the largest wheel of the second shaft, and then back from 
one of the smaller wheels on this shaft to the wheel in gear 
with it on the sleeve, and so to the first gearshaft. This is 
not unlike the backgear of a lathe. For reversing purposes 
a fourth wheel on the second shaft is geared with the larger 
wheel on the sleeve through an intermediate wheel. 

This form of variable gear is now often employed in con¬ 
junction with a balance geared cross-shaft and side-chains. 
On powerful cars it is not infrequently modified to give four 
speeds, and then the third speed is sometimes made to give 
the direct drive, if the fourth is too high for general use. 

In nearly all cars the gear is changed by a hand lever 
pivoted at the right-hand side of the frame and working in a 
slotted quadrant. Recesses in the quadrant receive a safety 
catch worked by a finger lever on the hand lever, and hold 
the latter in the different positions to which it is set in chang¬ 
ing gear. The gate-change quadrant is so called from its 
having two or more slots side by side, and an opening or gate 
between them through which the lever is moved with a lat¬ 
eral motion in passing from one slot to the other. In this 
case the different gear sleeves have separate forks and actu¬ 
ating rods which are selected by the hand lever and its con¬ 
nections as the lever is moved sideways. Strong spring re¬ 
tainers should be fitted for automatically locking the rods, 
forks and gear sleeves that are not at the moment under the 
direct control of the hand lever. 

A special catch of some sort should be provided to pre¬ 
vent the gear lever being moved so as to bring the reverse 
into action in mistake for one of the forward gears. 

The Live Axle. 

To the rear end of the first gearshaft is connected, by a 
universal joint, the cardan-shaft proper. The power is trans¬ 
mitted to the balance-geared axle by bevel or by worm gear¬ 
ing, and the speed reduction between the motor and road 
wheels is made at this point, the bevel pinion on the cardan- 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


203 


shaft being only a fraction of the size of the bevel wheel on 
the balance gear casing. Sometimes a second universal joint 
is introduced near the rear end of the cardan-shaft. To be 
really universal, the two axes of the joint should intersect, 
but this is seldom the case, and it is not of great importance. 
The joints are used to compensate for the movement of the 
springs, which, of course, in this case, come between the road 
wheels and the frame on which the variable gear box is 
mounted. The parts of the shaft should be as nearly as pos¬ 
sible in line during average running conditions; otherwise, 
an excessive amount of work will be put on the joint or 
joints. Some longitudinal play should also be provided for 
in the shaft. 

In this type of transmission the road wheels are driven di¬ 
rect by the parts of the balance-geared axle, which is called 
a “live axle” to distinguish it from the non-rotating axle on 
which the road wheels revolve in a chain-geared car. The 
parts of the live axle are mounted in bearings in a tubular 
casing, which is in turn secured to the rear springs, and thus 
to the frame of the car. The casing is enlarged centrally 
to inclose the balance gear and driving bevel wheel, and also 
to inclose and provide a bearing for the bevel pinion. In 
fact, a bearing ought to be, and often is, provided for the 
tail end of the cardan-shaft both in front of and behind the 
pinion, as it is very important that the relative positions of 
the bevel pinion and bevel wheel should be perfectly main¬ 
tained. Not only is there a tendency for the bevel wheels 
to push apart, but, owing to the resistance to propulsion of¬ 
fered by the road wheels, the pinion tries to climb up the 
bevel wheel, and so rotate the axle casing. This should be 
met by providing the casing with a radial arm, which should 
extend forward about as far as the forward universal joint in 
the cardan-shaft, where it should be connected firmly, or with 
a small amount of elasticity, to the car frame. A neat way 
of resisting the rotative tendency of the live axle casing is to 
dispense with the rear universal joint and continue the part 
of the casing containing the tail of the shaft, along the shaft, 


204 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


nearly to the front universal joint. This answers the purpose 
well, and makes for simplicity at the same time. 

The Gear-box. 

The spur wheels of the change speed g*ear are inclosed in a 
gear-box, which serves several purposes: first, to provide a 
framework in which the spindles may be mounted in bear¬ 
ings of fixed relative position; second, to exclude dirt and 
wet, and, third, to hold a quantity of gear-case oil for lubri¬ 
cating the wheel teeth. The spindle bearings are usually lu¬ 
bricated with oil through pipes leading from the lubricator 
on the dashboard. The balance gear is similarly inclosed and 
lubricated. 

Control of the Gear. 

The principle on which most modern gears are modeled is 
described above, but there are many variations. The most 
popular consists in having two sliding sleeves instead of one. 
There are several advantages in this. The shafts can be made 
much smaller, which minimizes the tendency to spring and 
reduces the noise in the gears. The gear-box, too, can be 
made neater and lighter. 

In the two sliding sleeves type of gear, of course, there is 
a shifting fork for each pair of sliding gears, as well as for 
the reverse. In order that these three forks can be operated 
by one lever, and so that no two sets of gears can be put into 
engagement at the same time, which would entail serious 
damage to the mechanism, what is known as the gate con¬ 
trol is used. 

The hand lever at the side of the car, which is used to op¬ 
erate the change speed gear, works in a quadrant having three 
parallel slots with a short cross slot joining them. The lever 
cannot onlv be moved forward and backward, but also can 
be slid sideways, carrying with it the short lever which en¬ 
gages with the three rods which operate the three sliding 
forks of the gear. Each rod has at its end a claw or slot, 
and as the lever is moved sideways through the slot con¬ 
necting the three parallel slots in the quadrant, it engages 


:AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


205 


with one or the other of the three claws. Until the lever is 
moved into a position where it can be pulled through from 
one slot to the other it cannot, of course, be disconnected 
from the claw and rod which it is operating, and when it is 
moved into such position the rod is so situated that the pair 
of gears it operates are not in mesh with any other wheel. 

Direct Drive on Top Speed. 

A variation of the gear wheel sliding type of change speed 
which has proved very popular is that in which the drive is 
direct on the top speed. In this the drive is taken from the 
end of the primary gearshaft to the countershaft or propeller 
shaft as the case may be, and is absolutely direct from the 
engine on the top speed. On the other speeds the drive is 
transmitted from the forward portion of the primary shaft to 
the secondary shaft, and thence back to the rear portion of 
the primary shaft. From this point it is transmitted in the 
usual way. In this arrangement the direct drive on top speed 
is noiseless and particularly efficient, for the drive is not 
transmitted through any of the gear wheels, and there is one 
less change of direction than in the chain-driven type. On 
the other speeds, however, there is one additional change of 
direction as compared with the chain-driven type, and an 
additional pair of gear wheels is in operation, causing in¬ 
creased friction and noise. 

Some designers arrange for having the third speed direct 
instead of the fourth, and this variation has something to 
recommend it, for, with a third speed a little higher than 
usual it practically becomes the normal, and the high speed 
is only used when the drive is comparatively light, and a 
little extra friction is not of so much consequence. Besides, 
the large gear wheels of the high speed do not make as much 
noise as the smaller gear wheels of an indirect third would do. 

A variation which has been adopted by some important 
firms has a good deal to recommend it and seems likely to 
become more popular. Its object is to combine the advan¬ 
tages of both the leading types; that is to say, while the 


206 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


drive is direct on the top speed there is only a single change 
of direction in the others, as in the case of the standard Pan- 
hard type. This variation is fitted to Mercedes cars. 

Direct Drive on all Speeds. 

There are certain cars which have a direct drive on all 
three speeds, and the arrangement may be described as fol¬ 
lows : The change speed gear-box is on the back axle. The 
propeller shaft has mounted on its extremity three bevel pin¬ 
ions which mesh with three bevel wheels of different sizes on 
the live back axle. These bevel wheels are free to revolve 
on the axle unless locked to it by a sliding expanding star 
key. A change of speed is effected by locking each set of 
these wheels alternately to the axle, the other two meanwhile 
running free. Another bevel wheel mounted on the opposite 
side of the live axle from the three loose bevels similarly gives 
the reverse when locked to the live axle. The gear is in the 
out-of-drive or neutral position when none of the bevel wheels 
are locked to the live axle. 

Gears in Mesh and Sliding Feather. 

The sliding feather engagement consists of an arrange¬ 
ment, as the name indicates, of sliding feathers which de¬ 
termine which pair of wheels in the gear-box transmit the 
power, all the others running loose on their shafts and being 
constantly in mesh. 

Constantly Meshing Gears Operated by Clutches. 

There are several types of these operated respectively by 
expanding, positive, and frictional clutch arrangements. They 
possess two characteristics in particular of great value, 
namely, (i) very short shafts can be adopted, and (2) the 
gear wheels being in mesh the teeth cannot be injured by 
clumsy manipulation, and the arrangement is, consequently, 
to a considerable extent, fool-proof. 

The Expanding Clutch System. 

The De Dion gear may be taken as an example of this type. 
On the secondary shaft are mounted clutch boxes to which 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


207 


are fixed the gear wheels, both boxes and gear wheels 
normally revolving idly on the shaft. Inside the clutch boxes 
are expanding fiber-faced clutches fixed on the shaft and op¬ 
erated by a lever on the steering column and a ratchet in¬ 
side the hollow shaft. By expanding one or other of these 
clutches the corresponding box with its gear wheel becomes 
fixed to the secondary shaft, and so communicates the drive 
to the bevel pinion and then by the bevel wheel to the rear 
axle. 


The Friction Clutch System. 

This is well exemplified by the change speed gear which 
is illustrated. The diagram gives a sectional view through 



Change Speed Gear with Friction Clutch. 


the center of the gear-box. It has two forward speeds and a 
reverse. 

No. 55 is the primary shaft driven by the engine, and on 
this .shaft are mounted the driving pinions, 6 and n, revolv¬ 
ing always with it; 41 is the secondary shaft on which are 
mounted to run freely the gear wheels 46 and 36. On the 
shaft 41 is also a pinion 33, which is fixed to it, and is always 
revolving, and meshes always with the gear wheel 15A, which 
is part of a sleeve 15B surrounding the right-hand end of the 











































































208 AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 

primary shaft 55, and running in the long bearing and free 
to run independently of the shaft 55- At the outer end of 
this sleeve 15B, is the clutch 15C, its male portion 16 engag¬ 
ing with it. 

The two gear wheels, 46 and 36, are provided with clutches 
by means of which they can be gripped to the shaft. 46 is in 
constant mesh with a gear wheel not shown, which is in 
turn meshed always to the pinion 6. 36 is always in mesh 

with 11. It will be seen therefore that when the primary 
shaft is rotating, the gear wheels, 46 and 36, are also rotat¬ 
ing, 46 in the same direction as the primary shaft, and 36 in 
the opposite direction. While thus rotating on the shaft 41 
they run on anti-friction sleeves. 

The drive from the gear is taken direct from the clutch 
15c on the sleeve 15b, which is always revolving with the 
cardan-shaft and the rear live axle. The shaft 55 revolves 
constantly with the engine, being coupled by a flexible joint 
direct to the flywheel boss. 

Two hand-levers are used to operate the gear. One for 
the top speed, which is direct, and the other for the low 
speed and the reverse, which are by means of the secondary 
shaft. These hand-levers simply put in and out of operation 
the three clutches which operate the gears. 

We shall first describe the drive on the top speed, which 
is direct. 

It will be seen that inside the gear wheel 15a on the sleeve 
15b is a coned clutch male member 12 which revolves with 
the primary shaft 55, but is free to slide slightly along it. 
A similar male clutch member 16 is fixed at the end of the 
shaft 55, and between these two clutch members the sleeve 
15b can be rigidly nipped. To bring the two clutch members 
together there are provided three pivoted dogs shown at 52, 
pivoted on a collar screwed and clamped to the shaft 55. The 
small ends of the dogs press against a disk 10, which in turn 
presses three pins, one of which is shown at 30. These pass 
through holes in the pinion wheel II, and in turn press 
against the male clutch member 12. The long ends of the 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


209 


dogs come into contact with a sliding cone 8 on a collar which 
can slide along the shaft and is operated by the fork 7 con¬ 
nected with the hand lever. 

When the collar 53 is slid along to the right it lifts the 
long ends of the dogs, the shorter ends pressing with consid¬ 
erable force against the disk 10, and drawing together the 
two male clutch members 12 and 16, gripping the sleeve 15b 
firmly between them and causing it to revolve with the shaft 
55. This is the top speed, with a direct drive right through 
from the engine crank shaft to differential gear on the rear 
axle. During the time that the direct top speed is in opera¬ 
tion it will be understood that the shaft 41 is revolving, and 
the gear wheels 46 and 36 are also revolving upon it, both at 
different speeds, and one in the opposite direction (46). 

We shall now describe the operation of the low gear. Dur¬ 
ing this operation the clutch 12-16 is, of course, free, and the 
sleeve 15b is free of the primary shaft. The low speed is 
driven by the pinion 11, which is, as we have seen, keyed to 
the shaft 55, and meshes with the gear wheel 36, normally 
running free on the shaft 41. This gear wheel 36 is provided 
with a clutch consisting of the male cone 34 keyed to shaft 
41 on one side of it, and a flat disk 37 free to slide, but not 
turn, upon the shaft 41. Similar dogs to that described for 
the top gear clutch, and one of which is shown at 52, are 
used to force the disk 37 up against the back of the gear 
wheel 36, and in turn to force this into engagement with the 
male clutch member 34. When this clutch, therefore, is in 
operation the pinion 11 drives the gear wheel 36. This be¬ 
ing now engaged with the shaft 41 the latter revolves with 
it, and the pinion 33 keyed upon it drives the sleeve 15b 
through the medium of the gear wheel 15a, which is part and 
parcel of the sleeve 15b, from which the drive is direct to the 
back axle. The dogs are operated by the sliding cone 43, 
which in this case is double-ended, the right-hand end op¬ 
erating the clutch we have just described, and the left-hand 
end operating the reverse, with which we shall now deal. 

The reverse gear is driven by the pinion 6 keyed to the 


14 


210 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


shaft 55. This pinion drives a second pinion, which is not 
shown in our diagram, but which is, in turn, in mesh with the 
gear wheel 46, which it consequently keeps constantly turn¬ 
ing in the same direction as the shaft 55> but at a lower 
speed. This gear wheel 46 is also provided with a clutch op¬ 
erated similarly to the low-speed clutch by one of the dogs 
shown at 52. When the ends of these dogs are forced up by 
the movement of the cone along the shaft they press the flat 
disk 45 up against the flat face of the gear wheel 46, and 
force it into engagement with the male cone member 48 rig¬ 
idly mounted on the shaft. The shaft 41 must then turn with 
the wheel 46 and in the same direction and at the same speed, 
so that the pinion 6 drives 46 (through the intermediate pin¬ 
ion) in the same direction as itself; 46, being now rigid with 
the shaft, transmits motion in the opposite direction through 
the medium of the pinion 33 to the gear wheel on the sleeve 
15b, and so drives the car in the reverse direction. 

The arrangement of the clutches is such that there is no 
end thrust on the shafts on which they operate. The collars 
which carry the pivoted dogs 52 are screwed on to the shafts, 
and can be adjusted nearer or further away from the clutches 
by simply screwing them round. When adjusted, they are 
clamped to the shaft by the pinching screws 40 and 19. The 
clutches are kept normally out of engagement by small helical 
springs between the male and female portions of the clutches. 
Four of these springs are shown in our illustration. In this 
particular arrangement there is no main clutch. As will be 
seen, the engine can be declutched from the car by operating 
any of the change speed gear levers. 

Epicycloidal Gears. 

The epicyclic or “crypto” type of gear has come very largely 
into use for automobile transmission purposes. The arrange¬ 
ments vary largely, and form the subject matter of many 
patents, but, generally speaking, the gears approximate very 
closely to one another, and the changes of speed are obtained 
by rendering different elements stationary or active. 


:AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


211 


In one typical form of epicyclic gearing a center or sun 
wheel is surrounded by an internally-toothed wheel of con¬ 
siderably larger diameter. One or more planet pinions are 
mounted on a carrier and gear with both the other wheels.' 
All the wheels are in one plane and form a concentric sys¬ 
tem. By locking the sun wheel, the internally-toothed wheel, 
or the pinion-carrier to either the driving or the driven parts, 
and by holding one or other of them stationary, forward and 
reverse motions can be obtained at different ratios. The 
wheels are always in mesh, and the changes of speed are 
brought about by the application of brake bands, and, there¬ 
fore, without shock. 

A number of transmission gears have been devised in which 
the motor-shaft and other shafts are all arranged transversely 
of the car and so parallel to one another. The various speeds 
are generally obtained by means of sliding spur wheels, and 
the motion is conveyed from shaft to shaft by chains. 

The parallel system of transmission should, theoretically, 
be considerably more efficient than systems in which the 
power is carried round one or more right angles, but the 
theory is not well borne out in such severely practical tests 
as hill-climbing competitions. The restrictions of space make 
it difficult to set a large motor transversely of the car. 

Belt Drive Gearing. 

Other systems of change speed gearing have been in use 
from time to time, but are now obsolete. Of these the belt 
drive was at one time most popular, especially in Europe, in 
connection with cars of the Benz make. It had considerable 
advantages in the way of silence, smoothness of working and 
simplicity; but the constant stretching, slipping and break¬ 
ing of the belts, due largely to the use of unsuitable material 
and exposure to wet and mud, and some lack of efficiency, 
gradually led to its abandonment, though it may possibly 
come in again for small cars. 

Usually the arrangement for belt-drive comprised two pul- 


212 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


leys of unequal diameters, securely keyed to the motor shaft 
and driving a countershaft, from which the power was trans¬ 
mitted by side chains to the wheels. The drums on the mo¬ 
tor shaft were made double the width of those on the counter¬ 
shaft, so as to permit of lateral movement of the driving belt. 
The countershaft pulleys were in pairs, one fast and the sec¬ 
ond loose, and set alternately with the remaining pulleys 
driven by the other belt, so that when the countershaft was 
being driven from the motor shaft by, say, the high-speed 
drum, the low-speed belt was on its loose pulley and out 
of action. 

The belts were shifted by forks operated from the driver’s 
seat, and arrangements were made that the striking gear 
should first let both belts run loose, and then set the low 
gear in operation, a further movement freeing the low speed, 
and allowing the high gear to come into action. 

When belt-driven cars were in vogue attempts were made 
to vary the gear by regulating the amount of slip of the 
belt. Experiments have since been made with a system of 
driving by means of a large circular disk, against which is 
pressed a leather-faced wheel, connected with the counter¬ 
shaft. 

The Auto-Mixte Gear. 

An idea which does not come under any of the heads al¬ 
ready dealt with is to be found in the Auto-Mixte, a Belgian 
car. Instead of a change-speed gear, a dynamo and accumu¬ 
lators, or storage battery cells, are used, and the clutch and 
brake are magnetic. 

Under ordinary conditions, the engine drives direct through 
the armature of an electric dynamo to a magnetic clutch of 
the disk type, and thence direct to the rear live axle. The 
dynamo is shunt wound, and when the load of the engine is 
light, part of its power is utilized to generate current in the 
field of the dynamo, which current is stored in an accumu¬ 
lator consisting of 28 cells connected in series. When the 
load on the engine is heavy the dynamo may be used as a 
motor to assist it, the current being supplied from the ac- 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


213 


cumulators. By means of a controller the speed can be varied 
by sometimes letting the engine drive the rear axle only— 
letting it partly drive the rear axle and partly charge the ac¬ 
cumulator, or by letting it drive the rear axle, assisted by 
the motor. The controller is operated by a hand lever at the 
side of the driver and suitable ampere and volt meters are ar¬ 
ranged to show exactly the condition electrically of the ac¬ 
cumulator and the dynamo. 

A specialty in this system is the magnetic clutch. The 
end of the motor shaft carries a large electro-magnet facing 
a flat disk mounted on the propeller shaft. A similar electro¬ 
magnet is held stationary in the car frame, and faces the 
back of the disk. When current is passed through the coils 
of the motor shaft magnets, they magnetically clutch the 
disk and transmit the drive. When current is passed through 
the coils of the stationary magnets they similarly attract the 
disk and act as a powerful brake. A hand controller, deter¬ 
mining the voltage of the current passing through the mag¬ 
net, allows of the engagement or disengagement of the clutch 
being accomplished gradually. 

The Art of Gear Changing. 

To effect the change appropriate to the grade swiftly and 
without noise, without loss of way and without shock to the 
car, or accidental disturbance of the steering, and without 
racing the engine, is generally supposed to constitute the 
whole art of gear changing. It is an important part, but only 
a part, for there still remains the question of making the 
change at exactly the right time. 

When the car on its top gear comes to a uniformly graded 
hill, steep enough to cause the speed to fall off in spite of the 
throttle having been fully opened and the spark adjusted to 
its best position, which must be known, the driver can at his 
will and discretion allow the engine to continue to pull for 
a considerable time on that gear, but with the engine getting 
gradually slower and consequently developing less and less 
horse-power. To a certain extent this is what he should do 


214 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


to get the best result from his car, provided that he changes 
down to a lower gear at that moment precisely when he can 
just maintain his speed with the speed lever in the new po¬ 
sition. As a test of changing at the right time, it is to be 
noted that if the hill continues to be of uniform slope, a good 
driver when seeking for the best possible speed of traveling 
should not find that the car gains speed on the lower gear, 
for that would prove that he changed too late—unless per¬ 
chance he was driving with the specific object of economiz¬ 
ing in gasolene. 

A bad driver is as likely to change too early as too late, 
that is to say he will change gear at a moment when the en¬ 
gine cannot rotate fast enough with the lower gear ratio to 
attain to the speed which he already had. He then not only 
loses speed and wastes time, but he wastes gasolene and does 
no good to his engine by racing it. 

A little practice shows the driver that an appreciable 
amount of way is lost during the brief interval between the 
unclutching and reclutching necessary for the change of gear, 
so that when he is near the summit of a hill he often deems 
it policy from the point of view of time and fuel saved, to 
avoid interrupting even for so brief a time the action of the 
engine. He remembers that as soon as the crest of the hill 
has been surmounted, there will be a second waste of time 
in changing up again to the top notch. 

What Happens in the Gear-Box. 

The ordinary gear requires that the teeth of the wheels 
which are in mesh shall be disengaged, and others substituted 
in their place by a sliding movement. 

Suppose the car in motion with any one set of gear wheels, 
when it becomes expedient to change gear. The person driv¬ 
ing, first, and before pulling the speed lever, presses down a 
pedal so as to disengage his clutch. The efifect of this is that 
the engine no longer transmits any power to the road wheels 
through the gear, though the gear still rotates by its own 
inertia. Then with the speed lever he disengages one pair of 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


215 


wheels and quickly attempts to thread the teeth of the pin¬ 
ion he wants to use into the spaces of another pinion which 
stands ready on the shaft which drives the road wheels. 

If the spaces are just opposite the teeth and rotating at 
the same pace they will slip into place sweetly; if not, there 
is grinding and perhaps a few bruised teeth. Practice alone 
can teach the exact amount of hurry to use in pushing the new 
pinion into place, but in no case should any strong muscular 
effort be expended on the lever. In gear changing the driver 
must work accurately, gently and at the right moment. 

Selective Sliding Gear. 

In the most modern American parlance the type of change 
speed gear or transmission in which any change can be made 
without passing through the intermediate gears is known as 
selective system. Thus, in the 1909 Winton six-cylinder car, 
for example, the gear change mechanism is of this type, sup¬ 
ported on annular ball bearings, with three forward speeds 
and reverse. There is direct drive on the third speed through 
internal and external gear combination. The selective mech¬ 
anism makes it possible to enter neutral position, but impos¬ 
sible to engage any new set of gears while the clutch is en¬ 
gaged. 


216 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


PART XVI. 

DON’TS FOR MOTOR-CAR DRIVERS. 

Don’ts —The following “Don’ts” should be heeded by all 
owners and operators of gasolene engines: 

Don’t tear your engine to pieces if it will not run. The 
trouble will, in all probability, be located by one of the follow¬ 
ing tests: 

Turn your engine over and see if the compression is correct. 

See if you have a spark. 

See that the gasolene supply is correct and has no water in 

it. 

See that the needle valve of carbureter is not clogged with 
dirt. 

See that the engine valves are not stuck and that they seat 
quickly. They should be reground once every year. 

1. Don’t fail to read instructions on Starting the Engine. 

2. Don’t forget to keep cylinder lubricator filled and feed¬ 
ing. A dry piston will greatly reduce the power and cut the 
cylinder or piston. 

3. Don’t think that the cylinder should be perfectly cold. 
A gasolene engine works best when it is warm. 

4. Don’t keep the cylinder too hot or too cold. See that the 
air has full circulation. It is as necessary as gasolene. An 
engine can not pull a load if overheated. 

5. Don’t forget to throw switch out when engine is not 
in use. 

6. Don’t forget to shut off gasolene when not running. 

7. Don’t try to make any improvements on your engine 
without notifying the makers first. 

8. Don’t fail to use the kind of cylinder oil recommended 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 217 

by the maker. It may be better than the more expensive 
grades. 

9. Don’t try to wipe engine while in motion. 

10. Don’t use too much gasolene. The engine develops the 
most power when working on a smokeless mixture. A black 
smoke coming from exhaust means too much gasolene; a 
blue smoke means too much lubricating oil. 

11. Don’t try to start engine with cylinder full of gasolene. 
Shut off same and turn engine over a few times before trying 
again. 

12. Don’t fail to see that everything is ready before trying 
to start engine. 

13. Don't forget that nine times out of ten when the engine 
will not run you are at fault. Look around you and see what 
you have forgotten. It does no good to turn over the engine if 
conditions are not right. 

14. Don’t fail to look your engine over carefully when it is 
in first-class condition. You will then know how to fix it when 
something goes wrong. 

15. Don’t fail to have a fine gauze screen put in your fun¬ 
nel and strain all gasolene put in the tank. 

16. Don’t allow the working parts of engine to knock or 
hammer. Pay special attention to the connecting rod and 
keep it as tight as will allow engine to turn easily and run cool. 

17. Don’t think your engine will not wear out and that it 
does not need some care. 

18. Don’t be afraid to try and fix your own engine. You 
can not tell what a good job you can do until you have tried. 

19. Don’t allow dirt or dust to accumulate on top of your 
batteries, as there is danger of short-circuiting them. 

20. Don’t forget to see that the wires are tight on the bat¬ 
teries and that they may become exhausted in five or six 
months. 

21. Don’t run electric bells with engine battery and don’t 
let your engine stand outdoors without some cover for pro¬ 
tection from rain. If the batteries become wet they will be 
short circuited and become useless. 


218 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


22. Don’t forget to look into the gasolene tank before 
sending for an expert. This seems simple but it has been 
omitted many times at great expense. 

23. Don’t forget “Don’t” number seven. 

The engine will never stop from other than one of the fol¬ 
lowing causes: 

24. Gasolene supply exhausted. 

25. Air circulation not sufficient. 

26. Overload. 

27. Gasolene pipe obstructed or the connections loose. 

28. Battery failing or broken wire. 

29. Spark being set out of time or a short circuit in the 
insulation of the spring. 

30. Not enough oil, or poor oil on piston. 

31. Bearings not lubricated and sticking. 

32. Intake or exhaust stem sticking or leaking valves. 

33. Packing blowing out. 

' 34. Exhaust spring becoming weak or some part becom¬ 
ing disconnected or broken. 

35. The gasolene pipe being clogged or having a loose joint. 

36. The spark plug becoming short-circuited. 

37. Parts can only become disconnected by neglect to keep 
them tightened properly. 

38. Breakages can only occur by some obstruction com¬ 
ing in contact with moving parts, some objects striking en¬ 
gine ; or, some part getting loose or disconnected. 

39. The screw of the spark coil sticking to the spring. 
Smooth off the points. 

The engine will not run unsteadily from other than the, 
following causes: 

40. Lack of oil on all governor bearings, especially collar. 

41. Governor out of adjustment by someone changing it, 
or natural wear. 

42. By the catch plate on the end of governor lever becom¬ 
ing worn, so it will not hold up the push lever during the idle 
strokes of the engine. 

43. By the governor lever becoming out of adjustment so 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING { 219 

its catch plate can’t engage the projection on the push lever 
when it has been pushed out by the cam. 

44. Gasolene valve not properly regulated. 

45. Obstruction of gasolene pipe by water or otherwise. 

46. If using battery, the battery becoming weak and miss¬ 
ing fire. 

47. The spark plug points fouled with oil, soot or rust. The 
exhaust spring becoming weak. 

48. The exhaust or intake valve stem sticking slightly, but 
not enough to stop engine. 

49. The accumulation of dirt and grit in any of the gover¬ 
nor bearings. 

50. The insulation of the insulated spark dug spring 
becoming short circuited. 

51. The exhaust or intake valve leaking. 

A Few “Knox” Don’ts. 

Below are a few Don’ts urged by the manufacturers upon 
the attention of all purchasers of ’’Knox” cars. 

Don’t start the motor until certain that the spark and 
throttle control levers are in their proper position (spark lever 
at highest point on sector; throttle advanced one-quarter way; 
gear shift lever in neutral position on inside of speed gears). 

Don’t let the clutch drop in; let in gradually. 

Don’t start car on other than first speed. 

Don’t start car with brakes applied. 

Don’t let engine race or run at a high speed when car is 
standing idle. 

Don’t let car stand with gear shift in other than neutral 
position. 

Don’t let car stand on hill without applying emergency 
brake. 

Don’t advance throttle too far when starting car. 

Don’t try to run without oil, water or gasolene. 

Don’t drive fast around corners; it is dangerous and destruc¬ 
tive to tires. 


220 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


“Don’ts” for Drivers. 

The following “Don’ts” by Mr. Dave H. Morris, former 
president of the Automobile Club of America and member of 
the Committee on Public Safety are also well worth heeding: 

1. Don’t disobey the rules of the road.—Remember to keep 
to the right and pass on the left. 

2. Don’t forget that pedestrians have the same rights as 
vehicles at street crossings.—Remember that vehicles do not 
have the right of way at street crossings. 

3. Don’t forget that your rate of speed should never exceed 
the legal rate, whatever it may be.—Remember, when local 
conditions require, to adopt even a lower rate )f speed than 
the legal rate. 

4. Don’t get “rattled.”—Remember that it is the “other fel¬ 
low” who always loses his head in a crisis. 

5. Don’t insist upon your rights.—Remember that the 
“other fellow” may not know your rights, and an insistance 
on your part is bound to result in an accident. 

6. Don’t argue with trolley-cars, express-wagons, brewery- 
trucks, or other heavy bodies found in the public thorough¬ 
fare.—Remember that the drivers of these powerful vehicles 
generally operate on the theory that might is right. 

7. Don’t expect women and children to get out of your 
way.—Remember that many women and children don’t know 
how to avoid danger. 

8. Don’t run any unnecessary risks.—Remember that while 
the automobile is flexible, powerful, and easily operated, you 
may make a slip. 

9. Don’t drink.—Remember that nine-tenths of the acci¬ 
dents occur to automobiles driven by intoxicated chauffeurs. 

10. Don’t sneak away in case of an accident.—Remember 
that the true gentleman chauffeur, although he may not be 
responsible for the misfortune, stands his ground. 

11. Don’t fail to be a gentleman under any provocation.— 
Remember that the Golden Rule practised on the road will 
save you no end of trouble, expense, and worry. 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 

DON’TS FOR TIRE OWNERS. 


221 


Do not apply brakes so hard as to skid the wheels; this is 
what tears tires to pieces. 

Do not round corners at top speed; remember that in turn¬ 
ing corners, particularly when a car is loaded, there is great 
strain on the tires. Figure this out. 

Do not let the tires rub the curb; the steering knuckle may 
become bent and the tires badly worn on one side. 

Do not let in the clutch so that the car starts with a jerk; 
this tears the tread of the tires and is apt to part the rubber 
from the fabric. 

Do not permit water to creep between the tires and the 
rims; the fabric will be rotted from the water and from the 
rust that will form on the rims. 

Do not run at speed over roads that have rocks or crushed 
stone on the surface; give the tires a chance to respond to 
the inequalities of the road. 

Do not drive in street car tracks; they will cut the tires on 
the outside edge in a short time. 

Do not take railroad tracks, bridges, crosswalks, etc., head 
on and at speed; take them at an angle and slow down, so as 
to avoid pinching the inner tube. 

Do not guess the tires have enough air; put on a gauge and 
know it. 

Do not go out without an extra casing, two extra tubes, a 
repair kit, a pump and an air bottle. The last-named is one of 
the blessings of motoring; it has taken away half the troubles. 

Do not become hasty or excited in making a tire repair; 
time will always be saved by taking things as they come and 
making the best of them. 

Do not permit a car to rest on a deflated tire; it will soon 
cut the casing and pinch the tube. 

Do not fail to use talcum or soapstone in the casing when 
making a change or when putting in a new tube; it prevents 

friction and adhesion. 


222 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


Do not let lug nuts, valve nuts, valve caps, rim nuts, or any 
other part become loose. 

Do not let the valve stem be exposed to mud and dirt; 
secure a cap for it and always use it. 

Do not run a tire flat; if necessary, because of the absence 
of another casing or repair kit, remove the casing and destroy 
the rim rather than the casing—it will be cheaper. Better 
still, procure some rope and make a temporary tire, first re¬ 
moving the casing. 

Do not permit small holes or cuts to go unvulcanized; a 
stitch in time is a certainty in this case. 

Do not throw the extra inner tube under the seat and amid 
all the other stuff carried; deflate it, wrap it in a water-proof 
bag and pack it away carefully. 

Do not forget a few extra valves to be carried in the repair 
kit. 

Do not use tire chains more than is absolutely necessary; 
they can do the tires no good. 

Do not drive on the side of the road when it can be avoided; 
this puts a terrific strain on the tires. 

Do not stint yourself on the use of free air. 

Do not permit wheels out of true to remain so; they will 
soon wear out the tires. Wheels should track; axles should 
be straight. 

Do not permit grease or oil to remain on tires; clean with 
gasolene and dry immediately. 

Do not permit rims to become rusty; cover with enamel, 
paint or shellac. Before applying tires, coat the rim with 
graphite and the tire will be easy to remove. 


PART XVII, 


THE LAW OF THE ROAD. 

The law of the road is a rule of action descended from 
customs that have become recognized as law in the great body 
of common law of both England and America. Rules of 
action have, from practically time immemorial, been crystal¬ 
lized into laws, so that today that which was custom years 
and years ago has become recognized law and is without 
exception enforced by the courts. 

The old custom in England of traveling on the highway, was 
that two vehicles approaching each other and going in opposite 
directions, should pass to the left of each other; that each 
vehicle was entitled to the use or right of way over the left 
half of the used portion of the highway. This custom being 
so general in its application, grew into a positive law, and 
today in England is so enforced. 

Approaching from the Right —In the United States the rule 
of highways in its application as to approaching vehicles is 
just the opposite from that recognized as the law in England, 
that is to say, that vehicles approaching each other on the 
highways and going in opposite directions are entitled to the 
use of, and the right of way, over the right side of the used 
portion of the road. 

This does not mean that one vehicle approaching another 
is entitled to the use and occupancy of the entire right hand 
side of the highway as laid out and graded, but that it is 
entitled to one-half of the used or beaten path of the highway, 

223 


224 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


excepting only where the other party can with reasonable 
safety give such portion of the beaten highway. 

The rights of travelers on the public highways are mutual 
and coordinate, and it is the duty of each so to use his right of 
passage as not to cause injury or detriment to another having 
a like right. (Hennessey v. Taylor. 189 Mass. 583.) 

Reasonable Care —One using an automobile on the public 
highway must use reasonable and proper care in its operation, 
and bear in mind that he does not have right to the exclusive 
right of way. He must also do that which is required by the 
statutes and common law when the conditions therein re¬ 
ferred to arise. The operator of an automobile is charged with 
that degree of care in proportion to the varying dangers and 
risks of the highway, and which is commensurate with the 
dangers naturally incident to the use of such vehicle. He is 
obliged to take notice of the conditions before him and if it is 
apparent that by any particular method of proceeding he is 
liable to work an injury, it is his duty to adopt and follow 
some other or safer method, if with reasonable care and pru¬ 
dence he can do so. (Berry on Automobiles.) 

Mr. Berry says: “When on the streets of a city he is bound 
to anticipate that he may meet persons at any point in the 
street and he must keep a proper lookout for them and keep 
his machine under such control as will enable him to avoid a 
collision with any other person using proper care and caution. 
The operator must keep a watch out for where he is driving, 
and if stopped, he must not start his vehicle in motion before 
looking ahead to ascertain if the way is clear. 

“In determining the degree of care which the operator of 
an automobile should use while on the highway, it is proper to 
take into consideration the place, presence or absence of other 
travelers, the speed of the automobile, its size, appearance, 
manner of movement and the amount of noise it makes and 
anything that indicates unusual or peculiar danger.” 

What is considered proper care and caution in a given 
situation is measured by the danger which is to be reasonably 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


225 


apprehended under circumstances existing at the time, and 
not by looking backward after the accident has happened. 

Automobiles have the same inherent right to the use of 
highways as any other vehicle, and the care and caution re¬ 
quired in their use is to be determined in the same manner as 
that of the use of any other vehicle, under like conditions and 
circumstances, proper consideration being given to the appear¬ 
ance, noise, speed, etc. 

Passing Another Vehicle —When one vehicle approaches 
another going in the same direction and attempts to pass it, 
each is bound to exercise ordinary and reasonable care to avoid 
injury to the other, and if necessary and practicable, to give 
way so as to allow the other to pass in safety. One person is 
not compelled to travel behind another on the highway, and 
one has not the exclusive right to precede the other. A trav¬ 
eler in the rear may pass to the front when he can do so in 
safety. 

Mr. Huddy, in his recent work on automobiles, says, “In 
England, the traveler who overtakes and passes another must 
pass on the off side of the forward traveler, who should at the 
same time go to the left. It is said that in this country there 
is no rule regulating how the overhauling vehicle should pass 
the one in front. It is doubtful, however, if it can be said that 
there is no rule fixing a way the following vehicle should pass 
the one ahead. It is customary in many parts of the country 
for the vehicle in the rear to pass on the left side; that is, just 
the opposite from the English rule, and is perfectly apparent 
that this custom is dictated by common sense. This has been 
recognized in some of the recent automobile laws. 

“Nevertheless, it has been held that the law of the road 
applies only to travelers who approach each other from oppo¬ 
site directions, and that the advance traveler is under no 
obligation to turn to either side to allow the following traveler 
to pass, even though there may be a set rule how a following 
vehicle shall pass the one in front, it would seem that such a 
rule, like the one covering vehicles approaching from opposite 


226 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


directions, will be merely a rule of negligence, and the liability 
of the parties would be subject to the law of negligence/’ 

It must be borne in mind that these rules of action as above 
outlined, only prescribe the duties of persons using the public 
highways; that a breach of such duty resulting in the injury 
to another, would not amount to negligence per se, but must be 
determined under the law of negligence. 

The direction of the law that users of highways shall pass 
and approach each other as above set out, are not without 
exception. Thus one is not required to give half the road to 
an approaching or passing vehicle unless he can do so with 
reasonable safety for himself. If the road is narrow or there 
are collateral obstructions, then it would seem it would be 
the duty of approaching vehicles, before arriving at such nar¬ 
row place in the highway, or parallel with such collateral 
obstruction, to stop and permit the other to pass without forc¬ 
ing an attempt to pass on such narrow or obstructed part of 
the highway. 

In Indiana, under the provisions of the acts of 1907, especially 
applicable to drivers and users of automobiles, it is provided 
that an automobile approaching from the rear of anyone lead¬ 
ing, riding or driving horses or draft animals or other farm 
animals, shall reduce the speed of their car to not more than 
six miles per hour and upon such party so riding, driving or 
leading such horses, etc., turning to the right such automobile 
shall pass on the left hand side. This seems to be the first 
statutory legislation in Indiana wherein any direction has 
been named as to how an approaching vehicle from the rear 
shall pass the one in advance. • 

It has been the usual custom in Indiana for such approach¬ 
ing vehicle from the rear to pass to the left, but this custom, 
in the opinion of the writer, has not crystallized into a uniform 
rule of action, although it would seem that it should be so, 
especially in view of the fact that there is a like enforced 
regulation applicable to vehicles approaching each other and 
going in the opposite directions. 

It should be borne in mind that the law of the road is not an 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


227 


inflexible law; that the object of such a law and rule of action 
is to protect and provide for the safety of those who have a 
mutual and coordinate right to the public highway; that one 
may presume that another will act according to such custom 
as well as he himself so acting, results in the likeliest safety of 
each. The law varies in its application under different cir¬ 
cumstances. 


Mechanical Road Book. 

Through the invention of a clever Boston automobilist, by 
the name of Baldwin, the great bugbear of motor car owners 
and drivers who desire to tour or take long journeys has been 
removed. The inventor calls his device the “Auto Guide/’ 
and with it the automobilist may tour from town to town and 
state to state by day or night without fear of losing the road 
through the inefficiency of the guide book or the puzzling map. 

The Auto Guide itself is a cylinder of aluminum which 
clamps securely to the steering column, being as simple in 
construction as it is accurate and practical in principle. 

The interior mechanism is surprisingly free from compli¬ 
cated parts, consisting of brass reels operated by gears, which 
in turn are controlled by the hand wheel and contain within a 
small cylinder, a battery and a 2%-candle-power light. 

The whole fits snugly in and is removable from the small 
fixed outer case, which is clamped to the steering wheel be¬ 
fore the driver’s eyes and out of the way. 

The route sheets are attached to the reels in much the same 
way that a film is to the reels in a kodak. The route is thus 
under the operator’s eye from start to finish by day and night, 
and can be turned backward and forward at the will of the 
operator. It takes but a second to insert a new route, and 
hundreds of them can be carried in the same space that would 
be occupied by a cumbersome map or bulky guide book. Mr. 
Baldwin has already mapped out the entire eastern states and 
is now making arrangements to start several cars path-find¬ 
ing over some of the western routes. 


228 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


Licenses for Motorists. 

What Constitutes a Chauffeur—Under a ruling made by 
Judge Staake, of the Quarter Sessions court in Philadelphia, a 
chauffeur is a person who drives a motor car for pay. Several 
months ago (in August, 1910), Assistant Attorney-General W. 
H. Hargest, of Pennsylvania, when asked for an opinion in the 
matter by the State Highway Department, ruled that a chauf¬ 
feur meant anyone other than the owner, who operated an 
automobile. 

This opinion was so fraught with significance to the auto¬ 
mobile public generally, that the Quaker City Motor Club 
decided to contest such an interpretation and a test case was 
prepared. Stanley P. Cooper, a member of the club, who did 
not have a license, borrowed his sister’s car and drove up 
Broad Street in Philadelphia and around the city hall until he 
was arrested by a policeman who had been informed that 
Cooper did not have a license. He was fined $10, and appealed 
to the Quarter Sessions court, where the appeal was sustained 
and the legal status of the chauffeur definitely outlined. 

In his opinion Judge Staake declared that the laws of every 
state in which automobile laws have been passed, define the 
term “chauffeur” to include the idea of compensation for the 
operation of a vehicle. He said that if it had been the intention 
of the legislature to require all operators of motor cars to be 
licensed under the present law, it would have made specific 
provision for such a condition. Under the ruling of Mr. Har¬ 
gest it would have been necessary for each member of the 
family of a car owner, who wished to drive and who might be 
thoroughly competent to do so, to take out a license. 

How to Lessen Accidents—This may be, and probably is, 
good law, but the only effect will be to bring about a revision 
of the various state license laws. The great body of motorists 
are in favor of state supervision to the extent of official ex¬ 
aminations to determine who is competent to handle a motor; 
not merely competent from a mechanical viewpoint, but 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


229 


possessed of the necessary common sense that tends to dimin¬ 
ish the risk of accident. 

All sensible motorists wish to avoid accidents, and to con¬ 
fine the driving of cars to competent people. To secure this 
result they will cheerfully indorse and support all necessary 
legislation, both state and municipal. It is a well-known fact 
that most of the accidents are caused by incompetency, care¬ 
lessness, or intoxication. These are evils which injure the 
motoring fraternity, and which may be largely guarded against 
by limiting the issue of linecses to competent, careful, sober 
people. 

No person is allowed to run a stationary engine, or a marine 
or locomotive engine, until he has provided himself with a 
certificate of competency. There is urgent need of the same 
rule in motoring, if the good of the sport, and the safety of 
both motorists and the general public is to be conserved. The 
practice of allowing children to drive motor cars is especially 
obnoxious. In addition to the competency test there should 
also be an age requirement. No certificate should be issued to 
a person under 18. 

One great trouble is that nearly all state and municipal 
regulations are now based on the fee-getting plan, with a view 
to obtaining as much money from the motorists as possible. 
Any person who will pay the fee can get a license regardless 
of competency. 

Restraint on Speed—Another weakness in the present sys¬ 
tem is the arbitrary restraint on speed. There can be no ques¬ 
tion but that there should be a rigidly enforced speed limit on 
all vehicles moving in city streets, and to some extent in the 
more populous rural districts. But common sense should be 
used in establishing the limit. Because it is dangerous for A 
to run a car at 20 miles an hour it does not follow that the 
same risk attaches to a machine moving at 30 miles an hour 
when operated by B, a much more experienced, careful and 
competent driver. 

It is the duty of all intelligent motorists to give encourage- 


230 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


ment to all legislation that will really safeguard the sport, and 
there are few who will not do so cheerfully. So long as laws 
are in force they should be obeyed to the letter, regardless of 
how objectionable or unfair they may be. But, with proper 
effort they can be repealed, and more equitable legislation 
enacted. The first move to be made is to secure the abolition 
of the present dangerous method of issuing licenses solely for 
the fees, and substitute a rigid competency test. 

Speed With Security. 

In a special article on this subject printed in The Automobile, 
Marius C. Krarup says: 

If it is assumed that the present legal regulations, while in 
most localities onerous and one-sided, would safeguard traffic 
as much as is required if they were enforced, but accomplish 
this object (wherever it is accomplished) mainly by cutting 
down the average speed to something less than is intrinsically 
desirable, it follows that the cutting out of elements which are 
admittedly important sources of danger and inconvenience, 
but which have never so far been subjected to regulation or 
elimination, must result automatically in raising the average 
permissible speed not only for automobiles, but for all mem¬ 
bers of the traffic which are capable of taking advantage of the 
change. Systematic agitation on this basis would pave the 
way for a general understanding of the fine points involved— 
points which are not necessarily too finely drawn because they 
have not so far been spontaneously and commonly appreciated. 
Nearly all the factors in modern civilization which make civil¬ 
ization what it is, and which no one would think of abandon¬ 
ing, are in their origin beyond the range of popular insight. 
The automobile motor is one of them. The true means for 
securing safe traffic in conjunction with high average speed 
may be similarly inconspicuous to the average mind before 
their efficiency has been proved in practice, and yet they may 
be readily perceived by the specialist who is acquainted with 
the underlying facts and is accustomed to weigh the values of 
general ideas one against the other. 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


231 


How Speed Is Increased—The traffic regulation in New 
York and Chicago offers an example of speed increased by 
means of the suppression or regulation of other dangerous 
elements. By halting the traffic at crossings and sending it 
away in blocks, the average speed of the traffic has been raised 
considerably and the safety of pedestrians has been increased 
at the same time. At high speed more vehicles pass a given 
point in a given time. Inversely, at any one point a given 
number of them are farther apart. 

One of the leading considerations, when one is looking over 
the hindrances which at present exist against the general 
adoption of speedy traffic, is presented in the obvious require¬ 
ment that the reasonable degree of caution which everybody 
is expected to observe shall not be reduced from a mutual 
to a one-sided obligation. The normal condition of the past— 
preceding the automobile—has been that A looked out for B, 
but also that B looked*out for A. Neither A nor B can be 
satisfied to have safety reduced 50 per cent at the outset by 
having all the obligation or all the ability to observe caution 
delegated upon one of the two. “Fifty per cent” is here used 
figuratively. It may be more or less. Nobody can tell the 
exact relations. Perhaps security depends 25 per cent on one 
party’s caution, 25 per cent on the other party’s caution and 50 
per cent on the combination of both. The vital fact is, that it 
suffers when the full use of the senses is not shared by all 
concerned. 

Slow Traffic Most Dangerous—This condition is realized, 
however, if traffic member A is usually so placed that it is 
physically impossible or difficult for him to get out of the way 
of an automobile unless the driver B of the automobile ob¬ 
serves him and voluntarily contributes his share by veering 
from his course, slowing up or signaling. Evidently speed is 
in this respect of importance; in fact, the largest element of 
all the danger ascribed to speed, consists in this reduction of 
chances. The remedy consisting in speed reduction would be 
almost ideal if it were desirable, and if it could be enforced. 
But, being undesirable, it cannot be enforced, and slow speed, 


232 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


adopted as a rule, but most conspicuous by its exceptions, be¬ 
comes perhaps more dangerous than an expected high average 
speed, which the members of the traffic learn to more or less 
accurately gauge and look out for. 

The “fifty per cent” reduction of tranquility and safety 
which undeniably must be the result, if one person instead of 
two, is depended upon for producing the desired situation, in 
each instance is so serious, if anything in traffic regulation is 
serious, that it must by some means be counteracted if it shall 
be said that the system of regulation is efficient. A fifty per 
cent reduction of ease and a somewhat corresponding reduc¬ 
tion of safety in traffic would be too high a price to pay for 
speed. 

Leaving aside all scientific phraseology, the condition for 
perceiving motion in one’s surroundings may be said to consist 
in having motion represented in the sense images are produced 
in the brain of the observer or person who is in line for re¬ 
ceiving a sense image, whether consciously observing or other¬ 
wise. Motion in a sense image means change from one image 
to a different one. If this change from one image to another 
is slow or very small, the idea is conveyed to the mind that 
the thing in the surroundings which moves, is distant or moves 
slowly. The mind can usually determine whether it is slow 
or distant by the aid of a number of simultaneous sense im¬ 
ages ; that is, sound helps to interpret sight, and man’s dual 
or perspective vision, due to the co-ordination of the two eyes, 
is in itself usually sufficient for deciding whether the motion 
is slow or distant. When the attention of the person is 
focussed upon the moving thing, the difficulties in forming 
accurate perceptions are, of course, minimized, but for the 
subject in hand the question is one of the perceptions formed 
under less favorable circumstances, as when the “mind is ab¬ 
sent” and the different senses are not consciously co-ordinated. 

Dangers of Hesitation—Examples may illustrate the mat¬ 
ter. When a person places his finger upon another person’s 
naked arm, the act is noticed distinctly, because the sense 
image of the touch represents a change, but if the finger re- 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


233 


mains there and is not noticeably warmer or colder than the 
arm, the mind, if otherwise occupied, is likely to become nearly 
unconscious of the presence of the finger, the sense image 
produced by its light pressure remaining without change, ex¬ 
cept such as may be due to pulsation, slight difference in 
temperature, etc. If a person not intimately familiar with the 
gait of horses hears the steps of a walking horse, but sees 
nothing, he receives frequently the impression of two horses 
trotting, or of a fast canter, because the walk produces a more 
rapid succession of separate and distinct auditory sense images, 
and only the slow change in the distinctness of the sounds con¬ 
vinces him after a little hesitation, that the movement causing 
the sounds is in reality slow, whereupon he reasons that it is 
a walk. Similar hesitation in the traffic is to be avoided. 

Proper Preparation of Roads. 

Macadam Surfaces Condemned—At the last session of the 
International Road Congress, held at Brussels in 1910, one of 
the most important matters considered was the selection of 
proper surfacing materials for roadways. As reported in the 
American Motorist, the proceedings of the congress, of special 
interest to motorists, were as follows: 

Despite the advocacy of English and American engineers, 
the congress was strongly of opinion that our old friend, the 
macadam road, even when improved by tarring, was not suit¬ 
able for heavy or intense traffic. The charges brought against 
it were that it formed dust in summer and mud in winter, and 
that it was costly and troublesome to maintain. The conclu¬ 
sion was arrived at that it should be abolished from roads of 
any importance, its use being limited to suburban quarters and 
the outskirts of towns, or as a temporary expedient in new 
quarters where building operations have not been completed, 
or for avenues in woods, parks, etc. 

The natural substitute for macadam, in the opinion of the 
congress, is small stone pavement wherever traffic is intense. 
This is not the old-fashioned LouisXIV. pave of ill-fame among 


234 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


motorists, and found on many of the old French roads, but a 
surface of small setts with close joints, such as is now being 
used on many of the heavy traffic roads of France, Belgium 
and Germany. As the serious objection can be made against 
granite blocks of being noisy, especially under horse traffic, 
it was recommended that wood or asphalt surfacing should be 
used in its place for fashionable avenues having no street car 
lines, and where the grade is not more than 1% P er cent. Soft 
wood blocks—northern red fir, pine, larch, etc.—were recom¬ 
mended in place of hardwood blocks on account of their con¬ 
siderably lower cost, and the fact that they have not the same 
destructive effect on concrete foundations as oak, karri, jarrah, 
liem, blackbutt, etc. Although not called upon to express an 
opinion on this matter, this section of the congress gave it as 
its opinion that car lines laid in the roadway constitute a source 
of very serious deterioration. 

England for Tar Treatment—In England, the construction 
of tar-treated macadam roads having been developed to a high 
degree, it was not surprising to find Col. R. E. B. Crompton 
upholding this method. He places the advantages of tarred 
macadam roads as absence of noise, dust and mud, facility 
of scavenging, and low cost of upkeep. He only recommends 
granite sets for roads with heavy traffic in the neighborhood of 
warehouses, docks, and goods sheds, whereas the continental 
experts believe it is most suitable for intense automobile traffic. 
Col. Crompton enters into lengthy explanations of the best 
method of constructing tar roads and states that it is neces¬ 
sary to select the basalt or granite materials very judiciously, 
for their capabilities of absorbing tar vary considerably. To 
achieve success in tar-made roads it is necessary to put no 
more tar or bituminous binding material on the road than is 
absolutely necessary. He believes that inexperience in the 
making of tar roads is largely responsible for their failure in 
many parts of continental Europe. 

Tar painting of roads, supplemented by sanding or the 
spreading of some thin layer of suitable stony material with 
or without rolling, met with the approval of the congress, 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


235 


In this section a large amount of valuable information was 
supplied by the American contributors: Harold Parker, chair¬ 
man of the Massachusetts State Highway Commission; Percy 
Hooker, chairman of the New York State Highway Commis¬ 
sion; Austin B. Fletcher, of Boston; and Walter Wilson 
Crosby, of Baltimore. Tar and oil emulsions and hydroscopic 
salts were declared to have a real but ephemeral efficiency, 
and their use should be reserved for special occasions. 

Car Track Problem—Car tracks laid flush with the roadway 
were unanimously condemned by the congress because of the 
damage they do to the road itself and on account of the greatly 
increased cost of maintenance. Although no method of avoid¬ 
ing them entirely could be brought forward, especially in 
cities, it was proposed that their use be made as limited as 
possible. On open roads it was proposed that there should be 
a special track for cars and light railways, and that it should 
be super-elevated to allow of adequate drainage. Where new 
roads were planned, especially in the neighborhood of towns, 
sufficient width should be provided to allow of the future con¬ 
struction of a light railway. The suppression of trees along 
roadsides should not be tolerated. If the width between the 
rows of trees was insufficient to allow of a car track and the 
necessary room for traffic, the rails should be laid on the out¬ 
side of the rows of trees. 

Motorists, who are not road constructors, have often won¬ 
dered why the highways, intended for traffic, should also be 
used for burying water, gas and electric mains. Now road 
constructors, who are not motorists, recognize the absurdity 
of such an arrangement by a resolution that as far as possible, 
all disturbing mains should be laid under the sidewalks, plac¬ 
ing only the large diameter mains and intercepting sewers, 
which require less attention, under the roadway. Wherever 
possible, special subways should be built under the sidewalks, 
these to receive all pipes with the exception of gas. Where a 
roadway exceeds 70 to 80 feet in width, or if it is only 50 feet 
in width, but has very heavy traffic, the mains should be 
duplicated, one set passing under each sidewalk. The same 


236 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


rule should apply in the case of streets with expensive surfaces, 
such as wood or asphalt. A better understanding should exist 
between the authorities responsible for roads and mains in 
order that repairs shall be carried out with the least interference 
with traffic. 

Speed Within Reasonable Limits—The second congress, like 
the first one held at Paris, is of the opinion that touring cars 
cannot cause abnormal damage to the roads so long as their 
speed is kept within reasonable limits. What these limits are 
it does not attempt to define. Heavily loaded and springless 
animal-drawn vehicles may cause abnormal damage to roads 
constructed for the more common use of spring vehicles and 
of automobiles. Public service vehicles are declared to be 
innocent of damage if their speed is kept below 11 miles an 
hour, if the axle load does not exceed 4 tons, and if for 39-inch 
wheels the load does not exceed 330 pounds per centimetre 
width of tread. 

Industrial motors are believed to be free from damage when 
they comply with the following conditions: Axle load less 
than 4 tons; average speed 10 miles an hour; load on tires 330 
pounds per centimetre width of tire, with wheels of 39 inches 
diameter; or vehicles having axle loads of 4 to 7 tons, average 
speed 6 miles an hour, load on tires 330 pounds per centimetre 
width of tire with wheels of 39 inches diameter. When the 
diameter of the wheels is more than 39 inches, the load per 
centimetre width of tread should be calculated for both types 
of vehicles, by using the formula, 

c = 150 V d 

where d is the diameter in metres and c the load in kilograms 

Suggestions to Makers—Ribbed or grooved iron tires were 
considered destructive under any circumstances. A resolution 
was adopted that automobile constructors should go carefully 
into the question of clutches and brakes in order that the 
skidding of wheels may be avoided; also that they should 
balance motors as perfectly as possible, and that they allow a 
reasonable raising of the centre of gravity. 

Motor omnibuses came in for really favorable comment, 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


237 


although there appeared to be a divergence of opinion on the 
possibility or otherwise, of making them profitable to the 
promoters. Rubber tires were recommended wherever pos¬ 
sible, and it was believed that for country districts the most 
suitable type of vehicle was one carrying from 10 to 14 people. 
For town work an omnibus carrying about 24 people and 
driven by a 25 to 35-horsepower motor was recommended. 

International Road Signs—Road signs having been definitely 
decided upon at the first International congress, there was no 
need to discuss them at the second gathering. Edmond Chaix, 
of the Automobile Club of France, presented a paper, however, 
in which he pointed out how the four international signs had 
been adopted and what progress had been made in their erec¬ 
tion on the highways. The international signs, which were 
proposed at the first International Road Congress and finally 
adopted at a meeting held in Paris in December, 1908, consist 
of a large black disc with figures in white; these are four in 
number, representing a turn, an obstacle across the road, a 
grade crossing, and dangerous cross roads. Belgium and Italy 
made some objection to the round form of the sign on the 
ground that it was the same as railway discs and might cause 
confusion where highway and railroad were close together. 
Thus, after discussion, it was decided that the round form 
should be used in preference, but if there were local difficulties 
it might be replaced by a rectangular form. It was also de¬ 
cided that the inscription of the obstruction or danger spot in 
the national language should also be optional. 

According to the reports presented, these signs have given 
entire satisfaction in the various countries in which they have 
been adopted. Holland regretted that no provision had been 
made for indicating dangerous descents, but the matter was 
not discussed by the congress. Several papers were read on 
distance signs, without any discussion taking place. 

London for Next Meeting—During the congress a meeting 
of the English-speaking delegates was held at the Palais de la 
Nation, when the following resolution was adopted: “That 
this meeting of the English-speaking members of the Inter- 


238 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


national Road Congress is of opinion that it is desirable in the 
interests of the congress to hold the next congress in 1913 in 
London, and suggests to the Permanent Commission that the 
decision as to the place of the meeting of the next congress be 
deferred until it can be ascertained whether the Government 
of the United Kingdom will join the association and extend 
an invitation to it to hold the congress of 1913 in London.” 

The resolution was supported strongly by all the English- 
speaking associations represented at Brussels. At present 
there are 27 governments connected with the Permanent In¬ 
ternational Association of Road Congresses. 


PART XVIII. 

RACE DRIVING AS A BUSINESS. 

Speed Mania Essential—Automobile race drivers as a rule, 
regard their profession as a strictly money-making business, 
aside from the fact that they never would have gone into it if 
they didn’t have the speed mania. Almost everybody likes to 
go fast in an automobile, and the average chauffeur who has 
good control of his car is more apt than not to gratify his 
desire. 

It is easy to show that the chauffeurs and other employes 
about automobile places like to speed. A man in the automo¬ 
bile business says: “I can go into any garage in the city and 
get all the men I want to drive my cars in races. They’re glad 
to do it for nothing. They know, too, that if they ever get 
reputations they will make a lot of money.” 

Earnings of Crack Drivers—It is interesting to see just what 
“a lot of money” means in this business, which certainly is 
dangerous enough. There are three men today who are in the 
first rank as money-making automobile drivers in this country. 
Of these three, one man seldom competes in races. He is 
content to go about giving exhibitions. He is not under con¬ 
tract to any one firm, but has several cars of different makes, 
and has also a stable of followers, so that he and his men can 
give exhibitions. This man, taking a week or several days of 
time at fairs and other places where such sensations are in 
demand, gives exhibitions but avoids races. 

239 


240 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


He has figured out that there is nothing in racing when 
the money can be got for speed trials. He makes his appear¬ 
ances on a contingent arrangement or else takes a guarantee. 
It is likely that this man, who is playing the game safest of 
all, will make $50,000 the best year he has. 

So much for this man, whose case is unusual. The men who 
actually take chances, that is, who compete in road and track 
races in competition, do not get anywhere near as much. The 
best of them all probably makes $20,000 in his most profitable 
season. He gets a contract from the firm for which he drives, 
he gets pay from makers of oils and tires, he receives appear¬ 
ance money at places where his being a competitor would 
enhance the meet, and there are other little perquisites. 

This is what he gets for risking his neck several times a 
year. He doesn't have to compete as often as the man who 
gives exhibitions, but he runs a great risk every time he does 
start. This man and one other driver are in the front rank of 
the racing automobilists and they get the top notch pay. 

There is a very large contingent of racing drivers who 
haven't arrived yet. They are getting from $2,000 to $5,000 
a year for what they are doing and probably consider them¬ 
selves well paid. They have to take part in more races too, 
than do the top notchers, because the lads with the big repu¬ 
tations can afford to make terms as to how often they shall 
race in a season. In other words, this game is about as un- 
remunerative as anything could be and still is one of the 
riskiest forms of employment to be found. 

Why Men Drive Racers—Naturally the racing driver 
wouldn’t follow this occupation if he didn’t like it. The game 
fascinates him and he likes to go at speed. He has always be¬ 
fore him the hope that he will get away up in the profession and 
collect money enough to retire on before he meets with an acci¬ 
dent although for the matter of that, the racing driver never for 
a moment considers the chances of himself being hurt. If he 
did he wouldn’t be worth much as a driver. He wouldn’t have 
ginger enough. 

He does think, though, that the other fellow is likely to 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


241 


“get his’ and thus give him a chance if he happens to be fall¬ 
ing behind. It is a great deal like that feeling which makes 
folks say of someone who has died, “isn’t that too bad?” for¬ 
getting that the same fate must inevitably overtake the speaker. 

The racing driver has too much to occupy his mind while 
he is driving, anyway, to give him a chance to think about 
accidents to himself. He has things to watch, signs and marks 
along the road, and he has the handling of the car to attend 
to; so he sits tight and plugs away and hopes for the best. 

As for the mechanic, his case isn’t quite so easy. He doesn’t 
get paid anywhere near so much as the driver, but he is likely 
to meet with the same disastrous fate if an accident happens. 
He hasn’t nearly so much to attend to as the other fellow, and 
so he has more time to think about things. There isn’t any 
chance to talk. 

One mechanic was asked if he wasn’t afraid of an accident 
when going along with a certain daredevil foreign driver. 
“Oh, no,” he said, shrugging his shoulders. “The chauffeur 
looks out for himself. He doesn’t want to be hurt. Thus he 
looks out for me at the same time.” 

Handicap in American Races—This country has not pro¬ 
duced so many well known drivers as are developed abroad, 
chiefly for the reason that there are not enough good races 
here to bring them out. The driver on the other side of the 
water has eight or ten great road races over long courses in 
a single season, and these are the things that encourage a large 
number of drivers to competition. 

Here, although the number of these races is increasing, it is 
still not large enough, and the conditions are not regarded as 
satisfactory by the men who want to see motor racing flourish. 
The small track races are not approved of particularly, and 
the road races over small circuits also fail to come up to the 
standards they have set. They do not believe in “bringing 
the car past the grand stand as often as possible,” which seems 
to be the ideal of many promoters. These men who want to 
see better motor racing think that the long circuit means bet¬ 
ter racing and better driving, even if the cars themselves are 


242 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


seen only every twenty minutes or so. In that way the foreign 
idea, which is still pretty good to copy in these matters, would 
be closely approximated. 

Expense of Motor Racing—The business of motor racing is 
one of the most expensive things the average manufacturer 
can tackle, but it isn’t such a bad investment when one of the 
cars entered wins. It may cost, for instance, $35,000 to send 
three cars to the line for such a race as the Vanderbilt cup, 
held in October, 1910, but let one of those cars win, and the 
company is made. 

Sales increase to unbelievable percentages immediately fol¬ 
lowing such a victory, and the cost of entering and running the 
cars is wiped out in almost no time. The firms that enter cars 
that do not win and do not make a good showing have to stand 
the loss, but one such victory means not one season but several 
seasons of great profit, so that the risk is worth while taking. 

The cost of preparing a team of racers for some big event 
cannot be figured in advance. The professional driver who is 
hired is the sole judge of what should be bought, and he gives 
his orders as he wishes. It is part of the bargain with him. 
He orders repairs and parts and tires and what not, as he 
decides it is necessary, and so it is impossible to say what the 
cost is going to figure up. The preparation of the racing car 
itself isn’t a very big matter, compared to the upkeep of it 
when it is trying out. So it can be seen that the manufacturers 
themselves have experience of the saying about it's “not being 
the first cost that counts.” 

The most variable matter in the handling of a racing auto¬ 
mobile is the cost of tires. Some lucky drivers will go through 
an entire race without the semblance of tire trouble. Another 
driver on the same course and making use of the same sort of 
tire, will have all sorts of blowouts and punctures. It has 
happened that a racing car sent for a road race over a small 
course finds the turns too hard and has many forms of tire 
troubles that wouldn’t be the case on a bigger circuit. 

There was a car not long ago which entered a Western race 
and finished nowhere, for which $1,000 was spent because of 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


243 


tire trouble in the contest; and yet there was another racer 
several years ago which came through two winning contests 
on the road without ever a puncture or other bother. It is 
something that can’t be figured up, and it’s one thing that 
makers have to pay a lot for, if there is tire trouble. 

Marked Difference in Drivers—Racing drivers are of various 
classes as regards ability and also as regards the sort of com¬ 
petitions in which they can show best. For instance, there 
are men who can’t do a thing in a road race who are most ex¬ 
pert when it comes to track driving; and the reverse, of course, 
is true of other men. There is a lot of what is called luck in 
driving racing automobiles. It means that one man will get 
through without being bothered, whereas another man under 
apparently like conditions will get out of one hole only to be 
plunged into another; but it is not a well-paid calling under 
any circumstances. 

Race Driving by Amateurs—Many wealthy men who for¬ 
merly found pleasure and excitement in horse-racing, yachting, 
polo, and similar sports, are now devoting their time and 
energies to automobile racing. But they are not in the game 
for the money reward. They are actuated by an entirely dif¬ 
ferent motive. 

Caleb Bragg, the millionaire driver, had just finished the 
crowning achievement of his racing career by defeating Barney 
Oldfield in a desperate battle on the Los Angeles track. The 
crowd in the stands was talking with bated breath of the 
achievement, but one bucolic visitor did not seem impressed. 

“You say he has a few millions in his own right?” he asked. 

“Yes, he’s well off,” replied his companion. 

“And he don’t have to risk his blamed neck out there ’less he 
wants to ?” 

“That’s what I said.” 

The farmer chewed a straw meditatively and finally said, 
thoughtfully: “I read a story somewhere once called ‘The 
Dern Fool.’ There wasn’t a word in there about Bragg. I 
guess the feller that writ it never had heard of him.” 

And there you have the attitude of the average man toward 


244 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


the amateur automobile race driver. This business of a man 
worth $10,000,000 driving ten miles on a track in less than ten 
minutes at the risk of a broken neck gets next to them. And 
yet, from the dawn of the automobile racing game, men with 
money, position, brains, education and maybe just a shade too 
much spare time, have been engaging in automobile races. 

Foxhall Keene as Driver —One of the first of the really 
famous amateur drivers in America was Foxhall Keene. There 
was no call for Foxhall to risk his neck. He had money. And 
yet he fairly doted on the risk. For awhile his specialty was 
polo. But all he could smash there was collarbones or an 
occasional arm. So he bought himself a 120-horsepower 
Mercedes and began to stick it in the Vanderbilt Cup races. 
It would take a book to tell all of his thrilling experiences.- 
In 1905 he made a phenomenal showing in the early part of 
the race. The following year a cracked cylinder kept him out. 
But he did not retire from the racing game for good until he 
demonstrated positively that there was not a racing car built 
that could kill him. 

Coming down to more recent times, says the Sportsman and 
Motorist, it was no longer ago than the fall of 1909, in the 
Vanderbilt Cup race, that an amateur took part in this ex¬ 
tremely dangerous contest. His name was Spencer A. Wis- 
hard. He has a lot of money and he owns an old Mercedes. 
This buggy he sticks into every speed contest that he fancies, 
and last year in the Vanderbilt, while he did not win, he was 
running when the race was stopped and his car was one of a 
half dozen that was. 

One Lucky Driver —Asa G. Candler, Jr., president of the 
Atlanta Automobile Association, is an extraordinarily good 
driver. Mr. Candler has been driving cars since they were 
invented and is rated one of the top notch road drivers of the 
South. He owns one extra good racing machine—the Fiat 
“sixty”—that has won races by the hundreds in Italy, France 
and America. It is said by the experts that the Fiat company 
never turned out a faster car for its size. The Speedway 
president is not only a skillful handler of the machine, but is 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


245 


in addition lucky. He has never had anything even resembling 
an accident. 

The “Luckiest Fool” —In the Speedway meet in Atlanta in 
1910, an amateur was running away with a ten-mile free-for- 
all, in Candler’s Fiat. The timers were catching the miles, 
and each one was showing a speed of seventy miles an hour 
or better. About the middle of the race the Fiat slowed down 
on the far turn, wobbled a bit, and then limped slowly home. 
Officials and reporters crowded around the red machine as it 
slowed down at the pits. “What happened?” “What’s the 
matter?” “Why did you stop?” were a few of the questions 
fired at him. But he only sat back in the seat and murmured: 
“Ain’t I the luckiest fool? Ain’t I the luckiest fool?” 

Finally, he seemed to realize that the folk gathered around 
were talking to him. 

“Oh, nothing happened,” he said with a smile; “only the 
steering arm broke and the left front wheel bucked under while 
I was going around the last turn about seventy miles an hour. 
And I didn’t run off the track and break my fool neck. What 
do you know about that?” 


PART XIX. 


NEGLIGENCE IN DRIVING. 

What constitutes negligence in driving? This is a question 
which interests and affects every man who operates an auto¬ 
mobile. It not only affects his own safety and that of those 
who may be in his car, but concerns all other persons who use 
the public roads. 

An interesting case involving the injury of a rider of a 
motorcycle, injured in a collision with an automobile, was tried 
in the Circuit court of Wayne county, Michigan, wherein the 
rider of the motorcycle recovered judgment and the auto¬ 
mobile operator appealed to the supreme court of Michigan, 
which last court handed down its opinion in deciding the case 
on September 27th last, 1910. Some nice questions are in¬ 
volved and it will be interesting to note the case in full. 

Justice Brooke, writing the opinion of the Supreme court, 
says: Plaintiff recovered a judgment against defendant for 
$300 in an action of tort for injuries sustained by him in a 
collision between a motorcycle, ridden by himself, and an auto¬ 
mobile driven by defendant. The collision occurred at the 
corner of Woodward and Milwaukee avenues in the city of 
Detroit. 

How the Collision Occurred. 

Plaintiff entered Woodward avenue from the east and turned 
south. Defendant was proceeding north on Woodward. 
Plaintiff claimed that he passed across the center of Wood¬ 
ward avenue before turning south, and defendant ran his 

246 



AUTOMOBILE DRIVING. 


247 


machine diagonally across the street, striking plaintiff’s ma¬ 
chine on the west side of Woodward, just south of Milwaukee. 
Defendant claimed that plaintiff turned south on Woodward 
upon the east side of the street, when he, defendant, was ap¬ 
proaching the intersection of Milwaukee, that, supposing 
plaintiff intended to stop at the east side of the street, he, 
defendant, turned slightly to the west to avoid him, that 
plaintiff suddenly discovered defendant’s approach, and 
swerved to the west side of Woodward, where the vehicles 
came together. Defendant was prosecuted in police court 
for driving his machine at a rate of speed prohibited by 
ordinance. 

Discrepancies in Testimony. 

Upon that trial plaintiff gave testimony for the people. He 
there testified that when he entered Woodward, he observed 
defendant approaching from the south at a distance of about 
from 50 to 70 feet; later he brought this suit against defendant 
in the justice court, where he testified that he first saw de¬ 
fendant when he was about in the center of the block, be¬ 
tween Baltimore and Milwaukee. Upon the trial in the cir¬ 
cuit court, plaintiff testified that when he first saw defendant, 
he was nearer Baltimore than Milwaukee avenue. Plaintiff 
was crossexamined at great length by counsel for the defend¬ 
ant upon the discrepancies in his testimony upon the question 
of distance. Plaintiff testified repeatedly that he did not re¬ 
member having testified in police and justice courts as the 
records in those proceedings indicated. 

Court Protects the Witness. 

Counsel for defendant then asked the following question: 

“Q. And, if you testified differently in police court, your 
testimony in police court was not true? 

“Court: You cannot ask anybody to testify in that way, 
not the adverse witness. That is for the jury whether he is 


248 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING. 


mistaken. It is unreasonable to ask anybody whether testi¬ 
mony is untrue. That is for the jury. 

“Mr. Ostoby: The question is whether he intentionally 
testified. 

“Court: I will rule it out. It is impertinent to ask any 
man whether it was not true. 

“O. If you testified in justice court, Mr. Scott, that, when 
you first came on Woodward avenue Mr. Dow was 85 feet 
from you, your testimony in justice court was not true? 

“Court: You need not answer. It is impertinent and in¬ 
sulting to a witness, and a lawyer should not ask it, and I 
reprimand you now. It is wrong.” 

Upheld by Supreme Court. 

Error is assigned upon this ruling and the accompanying 
language. We think the question was properly excluded. It 
was not proper crossexamination, as the court had pointed out 
earlier in the trial. Counsel had clearly brought out the vari¬ 
ations in the plaintiff’s various estimates as to distance. These 
discrepancies were proper subjects of comment to the jury. 
We cannot say that the language in which the ruling was 
couched constitutes reversible error as it was induced by 
counsel’s disregard of the court’s previous ruling. 

Charges by Trial Court. 

Defendant requested the court to charge as follows: “I 
charge you that* the motorcycle on which the plaintiff was 
riding on October 19, 1907, was a motor vehicle within the 
meaning of the Michigan motor vehicle law.” Error is as¬ 
signed upon the court’s refusal to give this request, and it is 
argued that in so doing he allowed the jury to test the actions 
of the defendant by the standard prescribed by the statute, 
and the actions of the plaintiff, on the other hand, by the com¬ 
mon law. A sufficient answer to this claim is found in the 
following excerpts from the charge: “I charge you that the 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING . 


249 


plaintiff in operating his motorcycle on the day in question 
was bound to observe the same rules of the road as was the 
defendant in charge of his automobile; that the plaintiff had 
the right to operate his motorcycle only in compliance with 
the law and the burden of proof is on him to show that he was 
lawfully operating his vehicle on Woodward avenue. If you 
find that the plaintiff in going into Woodward avenue from 
Milwaukee on the day in question was operating his motor¬ 
cycle at a greater speed than permitted under the laws of 
Michigan, and the traffic ordinances of the city of Detroit, 
then he was prima facie guilty of contributory negligence, and 
could not recover.” 


A Ruling on Negligence. 

Error is likewise assigned upon the refusal of the court to 
give the following request: “I charge you that the motor¬ 
cycle upon which the plaintiff was riding on October 19, 1907, 
was a motor vehicle within the traffic ordinance of the city 
of Detroit, approved April 30, 1907.” The last paragraph of 
the charge above quoted sufficiently covers this request, and 
is more favorable to defendant than was proper. There was 
much conflict in the testimony, as to the rate of speed at 
which plaintiff entered Woodward avenue. That question, 
therefore, became a question of fact for the jury. Had the 
jury determined that plaintiff was at that moment operating 
his machine at a speed greater than four miles per hour (the 
ordinance limit), plaintiff’s recovery would not necessarily 
have been barred. Breach of an ordinance is evidence of neg¬ 
ligence not negligence per se. Blickey v. Luce’s Estate, 148 
Mich. 233, III N. W. 752 and cited cases. 

Overrules Defendant’s Plea. 

It is urged that the court erred in refusing to give defend¬ 
ant’s request as follows: “I charge you that where a col¬ 
lision takes place the presumption is against the person on the 


250 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING . 


wrong side of the road.” Inasmuch as the collision actually 
occurred on the west side of Woodward avenue, which was 
the wrong side of the road for the defendant to be upon when 
travelling northward, it would, at first thought, appear that 
this charge, if given, would have operated against his (the 
defendant’s) interest. But it will be remembered that it was 
the defendant’s theory that he had been driven out of his 
proper course by an effort to avoid a collision with the plain¬ 
tiff who was earlier upon the east side of the street. Upon 
this point also, the testimony of the various witnesses did not 
agree. The court charged: “And last, if you find the plain¬ 
tiff cut the corner at the southeast corner of Milwaukee ave¬ 
nue and Woodward avenue, in entering upon Woodward 
avenue and came into the way of the motorman (the defend¬ 
ant), and a collision occurred, whether by the carelessness 
of the motorman, a little greater or more than that of the 
plaintiff, the plaintiff cannot recover, for he must be without 
blame or fault in the matter.” 

This court is of the opinion that defendant’s rights were 
fully protected by the foregoing and other portions of the 
charge. The judgment is affirmed. 

Strange Phases of Case. 

We have here a most peculiar condition. The plaintiff 
(the motorcycle rider) appears to have been favored by the 
trial and also the reviewing courts, in a number of important 
particulars, and the result should be a lesson to all automobile 
drivers that they must exercise more than ordinary caution if 
they would avoid responsibility for accidents for which they 
are not entirely to blame. 

In the case cited it appears that if the defendant (the auto¬ 
mobile driver) had stuck to his own side of the road he would 
have undoubtedly been run into by the plaintiff and the con¬ 
ditions might, and probably would, have been much more 
serious than they were. But, in that event, the motorcycle 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING . 


2 5 i 


rider would have been the aggressor, and the right to recover 
damages would have been in the automobile driver. That the 
latter minimized the effects of the collision by taking the 
wrong side of the road in an effort to avoid being run into by 
the motorcycle rider, who was approaching in the wrong di¬ 
rection, does not seem to have been taken into consideration 
by the courts. The automobile man, with the best and most 
human intention, was on the wrong side of the road and in 
the eyes of the law was guilty of negligence. This, at least, 
is the ruling of the courts. 

There is one safe rule in motoring—keep to the right. Some 
transgressor may run you down, but you will not be held re¬ 
sponsible for such damages as he may receive, although you 
will probably have to pay your own. 


PART XX. 


SELF-STARTING AND LIGHTING SYSTEMS 

Self-Starter and Why Used 

A self-starter is a motor used for starting an automobile 
engine and takes the place of the starting cranks supplied 
with the older types of car. In some types the engine itself 
forms part of the self-starting device. It makes starting pos¬ 
sible without physical effort on the part of the operator, and 
is almost a necessity on modern cars using heavy grades of 
gasoline and heavy engines. 

Self-Starters Classified 

According to the form of energy used in driving the motors. 
Spring motors, compressed air, gasoline vapor, acetylene gas, 
and electricity are all used for operating the self-starters now 
on the market. When electricity is used, the current is also 
used for supplying electric light. 

The Spring Motor Starter 

The spring starter utilizes the energy of a coiled spring, the 
spring being arranged so that it acts upon the crank shaft of 
the engine in unwinding. After the starting is accomplished, 
the spring is rewound automatically by the power of the 
engine and without the attention of the operator. This type 
of starter is generally in the form of a small metal case that 
is attached to the front stub of the crank shaft after the crank 
has been removed. It can be applied to an old car without 
changing the motor construction. 

Compressed Air Used in Starting 

In general there are two distinct classes of air starters, first, 
a type in which the air is admitted directly into the cylinders 

252 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


253 


of the engine, and a second type that is provided with an in¬ 
dependent compressed air motor. With either type a quan¬ 
tity of air is kept stored in a reservoir placed under the body 
of the car, the pressure in the tank being produced by a pump 
driven by the engine, or by the air motor when driven above 
a certain speed after the engine is started. When the air is 
started directly in the engine cylinders, it flows from the tank, 
through a starting valve, and into an engine driven rotary 
valve known as the “distributer.” The distributer valve being 
geared to the engine, admits the air first into one cylinder and 
then into another, alternately, so that the pressure will always 
act on a downward moving piston. This action is very similar 
to the action of the steam in the cylinder of a steam engine. 
A check valve in each of the pipes leading to the cylinders 
allows the air to flow only in one direction, thus preventing 
the force of the explosion from entering the distributer or 
tank. When the engine starts firing in the regular manner, 
the air is shut off. In addition to its use in starting, the com¬ 
pressed air may also be used for pumping tires. With an inde¬ 
pendent air motor no air enters the engine cylinders, the motor 
being geared to the engine shaft. The motor in this case acts 
also as a pump when the engine is up to speed. 

Operation of a Gas Starter 

A gas starter admits acetylene gas to the engine cylinders 
forming an explosive mixture which is afterwards exploded 
by a spark from the plug. This first explosion turns the engine 
over until all the cylinders are firing. The gas is then cut off 
and operation is sustained by gasoline vapor in the ordinary 
way. This starter receives its gas from an ordinary acetylene 
lighting tank which enters a distributing valve before passing 
to the cylinders. The gas from the distributer is piped to each 
of the engine cylinders, the valve being arranged so that the 


2 54 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


acetylene can be admitted to any one cylinder by turning a 
small lever mounted on the dash board. Check valves are 
placed on each pipe at the cylinders which prevent the explo¬ 
sion pressure in the cylinders from driving back into the valve. 

The Gasoline Starter 

A mixture of gasoline vapor and air is forced into the engine 
cylinders by means of compressed air or a hand pump. A 
spark from the plug explodes the mixture and starts the engine 
in a manner similar to that of the acetylene starter. 

An Electric Starting and Lighting System 

An electric starter consists of an electric motor (and some¬ 
times a dynamo), a storage battery, and a current regulating 
device. In starting, the current is allowed to flow from the 
battery to the motor which in turn throws the engine over 
until regular explosions are obtained. When the engine is 
running at normal speed, the motor is converted into a dynamo 
and furnishes current for recharging the storage battery, ex¬ 
cept in the types that are provided with an independent 
dynamo. A regulator is installed in the circuit between the 
dynamo and battery whose purpose is to maintain a constant 
charging current and to cut off the battery when the engine 
speed falls below a certain fixed point. In some makes, the 
motor, or the dynamo and the motor, are permanently geared 
to the engine. In others, the motor armature is connected 
with the engine through one set of gears when starting, and 
another set when charging the battery at normal speed. The 
double set of gears is necessary for the reason that a greater 
speed reduction or leverage is necessary in starting the heavy 
engine from rest. The current from the storage battery can 
be used both for ignition and car lighting, an advantage that 
is obtained by no other starting device, except, possibly, the 


AUTOMOBILE DRIVING 


255 


acetylene system. In case of an emergency, the motor can fur¬ 
nish sufficient power to propel the car several blocks without 
the aid of the engine. In normal operation, a magneto is gen¬ 
erally used for ignition with an electric starter, the battery 
current being used as an auxiliary in case of trouble. This is 
due to the fact that a magneto gives a more positive spark 
position and distribution than a battery coil and timer. The 
principal starters on the market are built into the cars spe¬ 
cially and the various starter manufacturers maintain exten¬ 
sive systems of service stations to handle quickly and econom¬ 
ically the troubles which may occur even with the most highly 
perfected systems. 


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